Evaluating Process-Based Integrated Assessment Models of Climate Change Mitigation

Process-based integrated assessment models (IAMs) analyse transformation pathways to mitigate climate change. Confidence in models is established by testing their structural assumptions and comparing their behaviour against observations as well as other models. Climate model evaluation is concerted, and prominently reported in a dedicated chapter in the IPCC WG1 assessments. By comparison, evaluation of process-based IAMs tends to be less visible and more dispersed among modelling teams, with the exception of model inter-comparison projects. We contribute the first comprehensive analysis of process-based IAM evaluation, drawing on a wide range of examples across eight different evaluation methods testing both structural and behavioural validity. For each evaluation method, we compare its application to process-based IAMs with its application to climate models, noting similarities and differences, and seeking useful insights for strengthening the evaluation of process-based IAMs. We find that each evaluation method has distinctive strengths and limitations, as well as constraints on their application. We develop a systematic evaluation framework combining multiple methods that should be embedded within the development and use of process-based IAMs

EUV brightenings in the quiet-Sun: Signatures in spectral and imaging data from the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph

Localised transient EUV brightenings, sometimes named `campfires', occur throughout the quiet-Sun. However, there are still many open questions about such events, in particular regarding their temperature range and dynamics. In this article, we aim to determine whether any transition region response can be detected for small-scale EUV brightenings and, if so, to identify whether the measured spectra correspond to any previously reported bursts in the transition region, such as Explosive Events (EEs). EUV brightenings were detected in a ~29.4 minute dataset sampled by Solar Orbiter's Extreme Ultraviolet Imager on 8 March 2022 using an automated detection algorithm. Any potential transition region response was inferred through analysis of imaging and spectral data sampled through coordinated observations conducted by the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS). EUV brightenings display a range of responses in IRIS slit-jaw imager (SJI) data. Some events have clear signatures in the Mg II and Si IV SJI filters, whilst others have no discernible counterpart. Both extended and more complex EUV brightenings are found to, sometimes, have responses in IRIS SJI data. Examples of EUI intensities peaking before, during, and after their IRIS counterparts were found in lightcurves constructed co-spatial to EUV brightenings. Importantly, therefore, it is likely that not all EUV brightenings are driven in the same way, with some seemingly being magnetic reconnection driven and others not. A single EUV brightening occurred co-spatial to the IRIS slit, with its spectra matching the properties of EEs. EUV brightenings is a term used to describe a range of small-scale event in the solar corona. The physics responsible for all EUV brightenings is likely not the same and, therefore, more research is required to assess their importance towards global questions in the field, such as coronal heating.Comment: Accepted to A&A, 9 figure

Extreme-ultraviolet brightenings in the quiet Sun: Signatures in spectral and imaging data from the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph

CONTEXT: Localised transient EUV brightenings, sometimes named ‘campfires’, occur throughout the quiet Sun. However, there are still many open questions about these events, in particular regarding their temperature range and dynamics. AIM: We aim to determine whether any transition region response can be detected for small-scale extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) brightenings and, if so, to identify whether the measured spectra correspond to any previously reported bursts in the transition region, such as explosive events (EEs). METHODS: EUV brightenings were detected in a ∼29.4 min dataset sampled by the Solar Orbiter Extreme Ultraviolet Imager (EUI) on 8 March 2022 using an automated detection algorithm. Any potential transition region response was inferred through analysis of imaging and spectral data sampled through coordinated observations conducted by the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS). RESULTS: EUV brightenings display a range of responses in IRIS slit-jaw imager (SJI) data. Some events have clear signatures in the Mg II and Si IV SJI filters, whilst others have no discernible counterpart. Both extended and more complex EUV brightenings are sometimes found to have responses in IRIS SJI data. Examples of EUI intensities peaking before, during, and after their IRIS counterparts were found in light curves constructed co-spatial to EUV brightenings. Importantly, therefore, it is likely that not all EUV brightenings are driven in the same way, with some events seemingly being magnetic reconnection driven and others not. A single EUV brightening occurred co-spatial to the IRIS slit, with the returned spectra matching the properties of EEs. CONCLUSIONS: EUV brightening is a term used to describe a range of small-scale events in the solar corona. The physics behind all EUV brightenings is likely not the same. More research is therefore required to assess their importance for global questions in the field, such as coronal heating

Picoflare jets power the solar wind emerging from a coronal hole on the Sun

Coronal holes are areas on the Sun with open magnetic field lines. They are a source region of the solar wind, but how the wind emerges from coronal holes is not known. We observed a coronal hole using the Extreme Ultraviolet Imager on the Solar Orbiter spacecraft. We identified jets on scales of a few hundred kilometers, which last 20 to 100 seconds and reach speeds of ~100 kilometers per second. The jets are powered by magnetic reconnection and have kinetic energy in the picoflare range. They are intermittent but widespread within the observed coronal hole. We suggest that such picoflare jets could produce enough high-temperature plasma to sustain the solar wind and that the wind emerges from coronal holes as a highly intermittent outflow at small scales.Comment: This is the author's version of the work. The definitive version was published in Science on 24 August 202

Picoflare jets power the solar wind emerging from a coronal hole on the Sun.

Coronal holes are areas on the Sun with open magnetic field lines. They are a source region of the solar wind, but how the wind emerges from coronal holes is not known. We observed a coronal hole using the Extreme Ultraviolet Imager on the Solar Orbiter spacecraft. We identified jets on scales of a few hundred kilometers, which last 20 to 100 seconds and reach speeds of ~100 kilometers per second. The jets are powered by magnetic reconnection and have kinetic energy in the picoflare range. They are intermittent but widespread within the observed coronal hole. We suggest that such picoflare jets could produce enough high-temperature plasma to sustain the solar wind and that the wind emerges from coronal holes as a highly intermittent outflow at small scales

Small-scale EUV features as the drivers of coronal upflows in the quiet Sun

Context. Coronal upflows in the quiet Sun are seen in a wide range of features, including jets and filament eruptions. The in situ measurements from Parker Solar Probe within ≈0.2 au have demonstrated that the solar wind is highly structured, showing abrupt and near-ubiquitous magnetic field reversals (i.e., switchbacks) on different timescales. The source of these structures has been associated with supergranular structures on the solar disc. This raises the question of whether there are additional small coronal features that contribute energy to the corona and produce plasma that potentially feeds into the solar wind. / Aims. During the Solar Orbiter first science perihelion, high-resolution images of the solar corona were recorded using the Extreme Ultraviolet High Resolution Imager (HRIEUV) from the Extreme Ultraviolet Imager (EUI). The Hinode spacecraft was also observing at the same location providing coronal spectroscopic measurements. Combining the two datasets allows us to determine the cause of the weak upflows observed in the quiet Sun and the associated activity. / Methods. We used a multi-spacecraft approach to characterise regions of upflows. The upflows were identified in the Fe XII emission line by the Hinode EUV Imaging Spectrometer (EIS). We then used imaging data from the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly on board the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO/AIA) and the High Resolution Imagers (HRI) from EUI on board the Solar Orbiter to identify coronal features and magnetic field data from the SDO Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager (HMI). Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS) observations were also used to understand the photospheric and chromospheric driving mechanisms. / Results. We have identified two regions of coronal upflows in the quiet Sun, with respective sizes and lifetimes of (20 Mm2, 20 min) and (180 Mm2, several hours), which are contrasting dynamic events. Both examples show weak flux cancellation, indicating that the source of the upflows and enhancements is related to the magnetic field changes. The first event, a larger upflow region, shows velocities of up to −8.6 km s−1 at the footpoint of a complex loop structure. We observe several distinct extreme ultraviolet (EUV) features including frequent loop brightenings and plasma blobs travelling along closed coronal loops. The second upflow region has velocities of up to −7.2 km s−1. Within it, a complex EUV feature that lasts for about 20 min can be seen. This main feature has several substructures. During its appearance, a clear mini-filament eruption takes place at its location, before the EUV feature disappears. / Conclusions. Two features, with contrasting properties, show upflows with comparable magnitudes. The first event, a complex loop structure, shares several similarities with active region upflows. The second one, a complex small-scale feature that could not have been well resolved with previous instruments, triggered a cascade of events, including a mini-filament that lead to a measurable upflow. This is remarkable for an EUV feature that many instruments can barely resolve. The complexity of the two events, including small loop brightenings and travelling plasma blobs for the first and EUV small-scale loops and mini-filament for the second one would not have been identifiable as the sources of upflow without an instrument with the spatial resolution of HRIEUV at this distance to the Sun. These results reinforce the importance of the smallest-scale features in the Sun and their potential relevance for and impact on the solar corona and the solar wind

Demand-side approaches for limiting global warming to 1.5 °C

The Paris Climate Agreement defined an ambition of limiting global warming to 1.5 °C above preindustrial levels. This has triggered research on stringent emission reduction targets and corresponding mitigation pathways across energy economy and societal systems. Driven by methodological considerations, supply side and carbon dioxide removal options feature prominently in the emerging pathway literature, while much less attention has been given to the role of demand-side approaches. This special issue addresses this gap, and aims to broaden and strengthen the knowledge base in this key research and policy area. This editorial paper synthesizes the special issue’s contributions horizontally through three shared themes we identify: policy interventions, demand-side measures, and methodological approaches. The review of articles is supplemented by insights from other relevant literature. Overall, our paper underlines that stringent demand-side policy portfolios are required to drive the pace and direction of deep decarbonization pathways and keep the 1.5 °C target within reach. It confirms that insufficient attention has been paid to demand-side measures, which are found to be inextricably linked to supply-side decarbonization and able to complement supply-side measures. The paper also shows that there is an abundance of demand-side measures to limit warming to 1.5 °C, but it warns that not all of these options are “seen” or captured by current quantitative tools or progress indicators, and some remain insufficiently represented in the current policy discourse. Based on the set of papers presented in the special issue, we conclude that demand-side mitigation in line with the 1.5 °C goal is possible; however, it remains enormously challenging and dependent on both innovative technologies and policies, and behavioral change. Limiting warming to 1.5 °C requires, more than ever, a plurality of methods and integrated behavioral and technology approaches to better support policymaking and resulting policy interventions

Coronal voids and their magnetic nature

Context: Extreme ultraviolet (EUV) observations of the quiet solar atmosphere reveal extended regions of weak emission compared to the ambient quiescent corona. The magnetic nature of these coronal features is not well understood. // Aims: We study the magnetic properties of the weakly emitting extended regions, which we name coronal voids. In particular, we aim to understand whether these voids result from a reduced heat input into the corona or if they are associated with mainly unipolar and possibly open magnetic fields, similar to coronal holes. // Methods: We defined the coronal voids via an intensity threshold of 75% of the mean quiet-Sun (QS) EUV intensity observed by the high-resolution EUV channel (HRIEUV) of the Extreme Ultraviolet Imager on Solar Orbiter. The line-of-sight magnetograms of the same solar region recorded by the High Resolution Telescope of the Polarimetric and Helioseismic Imager allowed us to compare the photospheric magnetic field beneath the coronal voids with that in other parts of the QS. // Results: The coronal voids studied here range in size from a few granules to a few supergranules and on average exhibit a reduced intensity of 67% of the mean value of the entire field of view. The magnetic flux density in the photosphere below the voids is 76% (or more) lower than in the surrounding QS. Specifically, the coronal voids show much weaker or no network structures. The detected flux imbalances fall in the range of imbalances found in QS areas of the same size. // Conclusions: We conclude that coronal voids form because of locally reduced heating of the corona due to reduced magnetic flux density in the photosphere. This makes them a distinct class of (dark) structure, different from coronal holes

Coronal voids and their magnetic nature

Context. Extreme ultraviolet (EUV) observations of the quiet solar atmosphere reveal extended regions of weak emission compared to the ambient quiescent corona. The magnetic nature of these coronal features is not well understood.Aims. We study the magnetic properties of the weakly emitting extended regions, which we name coronal voids. In particular, we aim to understand whether these voids result from a reduced heat input into the corona or if they are associated with mainly unipolar and possibly open magnetic fields, similar to coronal holes. Methods. We defined the coronal voids via an intensity threshold of 75% of the mean quiet-Sun (QS) EUV intensity observed by the high- resolution EUV channel (HRIEUV) of the Extreme Ultraviolet Imager on Solar Orbiter. The line-of-sight magnetograms of the same solar region recorded by the High Resolution Telescope of the Polarimetric and Helioseismic Imager allowed us to compare the photospheric magnetic field beneath the coronal voids with that in other parts of the QS.Results. The coronal voids studied here range in size from a few granules to a few supergranules and on average exhibit a reduced intensity of 67% of the mean value of the entire field of view. The magnetic flux density in the photosphere below the voids is 76% (or more) lower than in the surrounding QS. Specifically, the coronal voids show much weaker or no network structures. The detected flux imbalances fall in the range of imbalances found in QS areas of the same size. Conclusions. We conclude that coronal voids form because of locally reduced heating of the corona due to reduced magnetic flux density in the photosphere. This makes them a distinct class of (dark) structure, different from coronal holes

Evidence-Based Management of Hand Eczema

Hand eczema is a common skin disease with a wide variation in morphology and a complex etiology based on endogenous and exogenous factors.The diagnosis of hand eczema is based on patient history, exposure assessment, physical examination, and the results of patch testing. Management of hand eczema starts with education of the patient on the etiology of the disease, and the needed changes in behavior regarding skin care and preventive measures, and avoidance of relevant exposure factors. In many cases, medical treatment is needed for successful management of the disease; use of medication can only be successful with proper education and avoidance of relevant exposure