Evolution of Models to Support Community and Policy Action with Science: Balancing Pastoral Livelihoods and Wildlife Conservation in Savannas of East Africa

We developed a “continual engagement” model to better integrate knowledge from policy makers, communities, and researchers with the goal of promoting more effective action to balance poverty alleviation and wildlife conservation in 4 pastoral ecosystems of East Africa. The model involved the creation of a core boundary-spanning team, including community facilitators, a policy facilitator, and transdisciplinary researchers, responsible for linking with a wide range of actors from local to global scales. Collaborative researcher–facilitator community teams integrated local and scientific knowledge to help communities and policy makers improve herd quality and health, expand biodiversity payment schemes, develop land-use plans, and fully engage together in pastoral and wildlife policy development. This model focused on the creation of hybrid scientific–local knowledge highly relevant to community and policy maker needs. The facilitation team learned to be more effective by focusing on noncontroversial livelihood issues before addressing more difficult wildlife issues, using strategic and periodic engagement with most partners instead of continual engagement, and reducing costs by providing new scientific information only when deemed essential. We conclude by examining the role of facilitation in redressing asymmetries in power in researcher–community–policy maker teams, the role of individual values and character in establishing trust, and how to sustain knowledge-action links when project funding ends

Climate change effects on people’s livelihood

Generally climate is defined as the long-term average weather conditions of a particular place, region, or the world. Key climate variables include surface conditions such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) broadly defined climate change as any change in the state of climate which persists for extended periods, usually for decades or longer (Allwood et al. 2014). Climate change may occur due to nature’s both internal and external processes. External process involves anthropogenic emission of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, and volcanic eruptions. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) made a distinction between climate change attributable to human contribution to atmospheric composition and natural climate variability. In its Article 1, the UNFCCC defines climate change as “a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods” (United Nations 1992, p. 7)

Maasai perception of the impact and incidence of malignant catharral fever (MCF) in Southern Kenya

We investigated the perceived impact of malignant catarrhal fever (MCF) to pastoralists in Isinya Division, a wildlife dispersal area of Nairobi National Park, and used a range of participatory epidemiology methodologies. We compared the relative importance, incidence and impact of MCF compared to other locally defined important diseases with a total of 158 respondents in 11 group meetings and 21 household meetings in July 2004. Direct losses due to disease were investigated through lowered prices as a result of the emergency sale of disease-infected animals. Overall, Maasai in Isinya Division perceived east coast fever (ECF) to be the most important cattle disease and to have the highest incidence. Anthrax was considered to have the largest impact. In areas within or adjacent to the wildebeest calving zone, MCF was perceived to be the most important cattle disease and also to have the largest impact. Outside the calving zone, MCF was considered the fourth-most important disease with the fourth largest impact, and these were areas where wildebeest were less common. MCF was also the fourth-most common disease, and across the Division incidence was estimated at 5% in calves and 10% in adults. However, MCF incidence varied greatly throughout the study area, from 3% to 12%, and the highest incidence risks were found in areas where wildebeest came to calve. The percent drop in sale price per animal infected with MCF was estimated at 50% for MCF for the year 2003–2004. Forced avoidance movements away from wildebeest calves were reported to decrease livestock production due to loss of access to prime grazing sites. As suggested by pastoralists in this study, the development of compensation schemes or incentives from wildlife would reduce the conflict between livestock keeping and wildlife conservation

Maasai perception of the impact and incidence of malignant catarrhal fever (MCF) in southern Kenya

We investigated the perceived impact of malignant catarrhal fever (MCF) to pastoralists in Isinya Division, a wildlife dispersal area of Nairobi National Park, and used a range of participatory epidemiology methodologies. We compared the relative importance, incidence and impact of MCF compared to other locally defined important diseases with a total of 158 respondents in 11 group meetings and 21 household meetings in July 2004. Direct losses due to disease were investigated through lowered prices as a result of the emergency sale of disease-infected animals. Overall, Maasai in Isinya Division perceived east coast fever (ECF) to be the most important cattle disease and to have the highest incidence. Anthrax was considered to have the largest impact. In areas within or adjacent to the wildebeest calving zone, MCF was perceived to be the most important cattle disease and also to have the largest impact. Outside the calving zone, MCF was considered the fourth-most important disease with the fourth largest impact, and these were areas where wildebeest were less common. MCF was also the fourth-most common disease, and across the Division incidence was estimated at 5% in calves and 10% in adults. However, MCF incidence varied greatly throughout the study area, from 3% to 12%, and the highest incidence risks were found in areas where wildebeest came to calve. The percent drop in sale price per animal infected with MCF was estimated at 50% for MCF for the year 2003-2004. Forced avoidance movements away from wildebeest calves were reported to decrease livestock production due to loss of access to prime grazing sites. As suggested by pastoralists in this study, the development of compensation schemes or incentives from wildlife would reduce the conflict between livestock keeping and wildlife conservation