The impact of human relationships on semi-captive Asian elephant health and welfare

There are billions of animals living in close proximity to humans around the world from pets and livestock to laboratory, draught and zoo animals. The interactions these animals have with humans in captivity influence their physiology, behaviour, reproduction, growth, morbidity, and mortality. The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) is an endangered species whose close history with humans has led to >25% of its total population living in captivity today, mostly in Asia and cared for by traditional handlers (mahouts). This thesis focuses on the relationship between mahouts and their elephants in the largest semi-captive population of elephants, the logging elephants of Myanmar. Most past studies have focused on mahout-elephant relationships from a human perspective whereas this thesis investigates their influence on elephants through measures of their physiology, immunology and behaviour. In Chapter I, I investigate current and past mahout handling systems of semi-captive elephants in Myanmar. I then assess the impact of this handling system on the elephants in Chapter II, exploring how mahout-elephant relationships and mahout experience influence elephant physiology and behaviour. Chapters III-IV focus on early mahout-elephant relationships, studying how calf traits historically were associated with mortality during taming ages (Chapter III) and monitoring calves for the first time during their traditional taming procedure (Chapter IV). Whilst vast changes to the mahout profession have been reported in recent decades in many countries across Asia, Myanmar is often quoted as one of the last remaining reservoirs of traditional mahout knowledge and expertise. This thesis shows that there have also been recent changes to the mahout profession in Myanmar, with interviews of >20 experts and >200 current mahouts finding that mahouts today tend to be younger, less experienced and to change elephants more frequently than in the past. Less experienced mahouts may maintain good quality care however, with indicators of physiological stress from >150 elephants not dependent on mahout-elephant relationship lengths or past mahout experience. Yet both specific relationship lengths with mahouts and total mahout experience had important implications for other elephant physiological measures and elephant behaviour, and I discuss potential management adjustments to account for these effects. Juvenile mortality is one of the main factors limiting population growth of these elephants. I show a >50% increase in mortality between age three and the taming age of four years, suggesting taming as an issue of both individual welfare and population sustainability. Taming is highly criticized among welfare advocates and the media, yet it has never been empirically studied. I first investigate traits associated with historical taming-age mortality in >1900 calves, showing younger calves and those born to less experienced mothers to have higher mortality risk at taming ages. I also show recent improvements to taming practices, with the tamingage mortality of calves born after 2000 one third of those born in the 1970s. I next focus on the impact of taming today, collecting data from 41 calves undergoing traditional taming; I find evidence of acute stress, mostly over the first 10 days of the taming process, with one measure suggesting chronic stress lasting up to two months. I also emphasize that mahout safety should be at the forefront of decisions surrounding changes to taming methods. I hope this will be the start of many empirical assessments of how both mahout interactions in general, and particularly the taming procedure, influence elephant welfare. This will bring much needed evidence to these areas of research to optimize the management of thousands of captive elephants across Asia and around the world. This thesis contributes to a growing area of research studying the impacts of human interaction on animal health and welfare applicable across a variety of contexts and species as more animals face anthropogenic impacts worldwide.Ihmiskontaktien vaikutus puolivillien aasiannorsujen terveyteen ja hyvinvointiin Ihmisen kanssa elää lukemattomia eläinlajeja lemmikeistä ja karjasta koe-eläimiin, eläintarhaeläimiin sekä ihmisen kanssa työskenteleviin eläimiin. Vuorovaikutus ihmisen kanssa vaikuttaa eläinten fysiologiaan, käyttäytymiseen, lisääntymiseen, kasvuun, sairastuvuuteen ja kuolleisuuteen. Aasiannorsu (Elephas maximus) on uhanalainen laji, jonka historia ihmisen kanssa on johtanut siihen, että nykyisin yli neljäsosa norsukannasta elää osittaisessa vankeudessa Aasiassa perinteisten norsunhoitajien (engl. mahouts) huomassa. Tässä opinnäytetyössä tutkitaan Myanmarin metsätyönorsujen ja norsuja hoitavien ihmisten välisiä vuorovaikutussuhteita suurimmassa osin vankeudessa elävien norsujen populaatiossa. Useat aiemmat tutkimukset norsunhoitajien ja norsujen välisistä vuorovaikutussuhteista on tehty ihmisen näkökulmasta, mutta tässä opinnäytetyössä vuorovaikutuksen vaikutusta norsuihin tutkitaan eläimen kokeman fysiologisen stressin, immunologian ja käyttäytymisen kautta. Luvussa I tutkin Myanmarissa aiemmin käytössä olleita ja nykyisin käytettäviä norsunkäsittelymenetelmiä. Luvussa II tarkastelen näiden menetelmien sekä norsujen ja niiden hoitajien välisten suhteiden vaikutusta eläinten fysiologiaan ja käyttäytymiseen. Seuraavissa luvuissa tutkin poikasajan varhaisten vuorovaikutussuhteiden ja yksilöiden ominaisuuksien vaikutusta poikasten kuolleisuuteen kesyttämisen aikana historiallisella aineistolla (luku III) sekä tutkin norsunpoikasten stressitasoja ja yleistä fysiologiaa perinteisten kesyttämistoimien aikana, ensimmäistä kertaa maailmanlaajuisesti (luku IV). Norsunhoitajan ammatti on kokenut monia muutoksia viime vuosikymmeninä useissa Aasian maissa, mutta Myanmaria pidetään yhtenä viimeisistä jäljellä olevista perinteisen norsunhoitajien tuntemuksen ja osaamisen keskuksista. Tämä opinnäytetyö osoittaa, että myös Myanmarissa norsunhoitajan ammatti on viime aikoina muuttunut, sillä yli 20 asiantuntijan ja yli 200 nykyisen norsunhoitajan haastatteluista ilmenee, että norsunhoitajat ovat nykyään aiempaa nuorempia, heillä on vähemmän kokemusta ja he vaihtavat norsuja useammin kuin ennen. Vähemmän kokeneet norsunhoitajat voivat silti tarjota eläimille laadukasta hoitoa: yli 150 tutkitun norsun fysiologisen stressin mittarit eivät olleet yhteydessä hoitajasuhteen kestoon tai hoitajan aiempaan kokemukseen. Silti sekä hoitajasuhteen kestolla että hoitajan yleisellä kokemuksella oli merkittävä vaikutus muihin norsujen fysiologisiin mittareihin ja norsujen käyttäytymiseen. Saamaani tutkimustietoon perustuen esitän suosituksia norsujen käsittelykäytäntöjen muokkaamiseksi, jotta nämä vaikutukset voidaan vastaisuudessa huomioida. Nuorten norsujen kuolleisuus on yksi merkittävimmistä norsukantojen kasvua rajoittavista tekijöistä. Tutkimukseni osoittaa, että kuolleisuus on noussut yli 50% neljän vuoden kesytysiässä normaaliin kuolleisuuteen verrattuna, mikä korostaa kesyttämistoimenpiteiden merkitystä paitsi yksilön hyvinvoinnin, myös norsupopulaation koon ylläpitämisen kannalta. Kesyttämistoimia arvostellaan ankarasti eläinsuojelun ja median toimesta, mutta niiden vaikutuksia ei ole aiemmin tutkittu empiirisesti. Selvitin aluksi historiallisen aineiston avulla yli 1900 norsunpoikasen piirteiden yhteyttä kesytysiän kuolleisuuteen. Aineisto osoittaa, että nuorilla poikasilla ja vähemmän kokeneille äideille syntyneillä poikasilla on muita suurempi riski kuolla nelivuotiaana kesytysiässä. Viime aikoina kesytyskäytäntöihin on kuitenkin tehty parannuksia, joiden myötä vuoden 2000 jälkeen syntyneiden poikasten kuolleisuus kesytyksen yhteydessä on ollut enää kolmasosa verrattuna 1970-luvulla syntyneiden poikasten kokemaan kuolleisuuteen samassa iässä. Seuraavaksi tutkin kesyttämisen vaikutuksia nykypäivänä ottamalla tarkempiin tutkimuksiin 41 perinteisellä menetelmällä kesytettävää poikasta. Tutkimukseni osoitti merkkejä akuuttista stressireaktiosta lähinnä kesyttämisen ensimmäisten kymmenen päivän aikana, sekä yksi tutkittu fysiologinen mittari viittasi krooniseen stressiin, joka kesti jopa kaksi kuukautta. Eläinten kokeman stressin lisäksi tärkeää on myös norsunhoitajien turvallisuuden huomioiminen, kun kesyttämismenetelmiin suunnitellaan jatkossa muutoksia. Toivon, että tämä työ edesauttaa jatkotutkimusten tekemistä norsujen ja niiden hoitajien välisistä vuorovaikutussuhteista yleisesti sekä erityisesti siitä, miten kesyttämismenettely vaikuttaa norsujen fysiologiaan ja hyvinvointiin. Tämä opinnäytetyö tuottaa näistä aiemmin tutkimattomista aihealueista arvokasta tietoa, jonka avulla voidaan optimoida tuhansien osin vankeudessa pidettävien norsujen käsittelytapoja Aasiassa ja muualla maailmassa. Tämä tutkimus luo pohjaa ihmisen kanssa vuorovaikutuksessa olevien eläinten terveyttä ja hyvinvointia koskeville tutkimuksille. Suosittelen tutkitun tiedon soveltamista eri yhteyksissä ja eri eläinlajien kohdalla, sillä ihmisen vaikutuksen piirissä eläviä eläinlajeja sekä eläimiä on yhä enenevässä määrin maailmanlaajuisesti

How big is it really? Assessing the efficacy of indirect estimates of body size in Asian elephants

Information on an organism’s body size is pivotal in understanding its life history and fitness, as well as helping inform conservation measures. However, for many species, particularly large-bodied wild animals, taking accurate body size measurements can be a challenge. Various means to estimate body size have been employed, from more direct methods such as using photogrammetry to obtain height or length measurements, to indirect prediction of weight using other body morphometrics or even the size of dung boli. It is often unclear how accurate these measures are because they cannot be compared to objective measures. Here, we investigate how well existing estimation equations predict the actual body weight of Asian elephants Elephas maximus, using body measurements (height, chest girth, length, foot circumference and neck circumference) taken directly from a large population of semi-captive animals in Myanmar (n = 404). We then define new and better fitting formulas to predict body weight in Myanmar elephants from these readily available measures. We also investigate whether the important parameters height and chest girth can be estimated from photographs (n = 151). Our results show considerable variation in the ability of existing estimation equations to predict weight, and that the equations proposed in this paper predict weight better in almost all circumstances. We also find that measurements from standardised photographs reflect body height and chest girth after applying minor adjustments. Our results have implications for size estimation of large wild animals in the field, as well as for management in captive settings.</p

Taming age mortality in semi-captive Asian elephants

Understanding factors preventing populations of endangered species from being self-sustaining is vital for successful conservation, but we often lack sufficient data to understand dynamics. The global Asian elephant population has halved since the 1950s, however >25% currently live in captivity and effective management is essential to maintain viable populations. Here, we study the largest semi-captive Asian elephant population, those of the Myanma timber industry (~20% global captive population), whose population growth is heavily limited by juvenile mortality. We assess factors associated with increased mortality of calves aged 4.0–5.5 years, the taming age in Myanmar, a process affecting ~15,000 captive elephants to varying degrees worldwide. Using longitudinal survival data of 1,947 taming-aged calves spanning 43 years, we showed that calf mortality risk increased by >50% at the taming age of four, a peak not seen in previous studies on wild African elephants. Calves tamed at younger ages experienced higher mortality risk, as did calves with less experienced mothers. Taming-age survival greatly improved after 2000, tripling since the 1970’s. Management should focus on reducing risks faced by vulnerable individuals such as young and first-born calves to further improve survival. Changes associated with reduced mortality here are important targets for improving the sustainability of captive populations.</p

Investigating changes within the handling system of the largest semi-captive population of Asian elephants

The current extinction crisis leaves us increasingly reliant on captive populations to maintain vulnerable species. Approximately one third of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) are living in semi-captive conditions in range countries. Their relationship with humans stretches back millennia, yet elephants have never been fully domesticated. We rely on the expertise of traditional handlers (mahouts) to manage these essentially wild animals, yet this profession may be threatened in the modern day. Here, we study the handling system of semi-captive timber elephants in Myanmar; the largest global semi-captive population (similar to 5 000). We investigate how recent changes in Myanmar may have affected the keeping system and mahout-elephant interactions. Structured interviews investigated changes to mahout attitude and experience over the last two decades, as perceived by those who had worked in the industry for at least 10 years (n=23) and as evaluated in current mahouts (n=210), finding mahouts today are younger (median age 22yrs), less experienced (median experience 3yrs), and change elephants frequently, threatening traditional knowledge transfer. Mahout-elephant interactions manifested as 5 components ('job appreciation'; 'experience is necessary'; 'human-elephant interaction'; 'own knowledge'; 'elephant relationship'), according to Principal Components Analysis. Experienced mahouts and mahouts of bulls and younger elephants were more likely to agree that 'experience is necessary' to be a mahout. Mahouts with difficult elephants scored lower on 'human-elephant interaction' and a mahout's perception of their 'own knowledge' increased with more experience. Our finding of change in terms of mahout experience, age and commitment in the largest semi-captive elephant population suggests need for formal training and assessment of impacts on elephant welfare; these are findings applicable to thousands of elephants under similar management

How Big Is It Really? Assessing the Efficacy of Indirect Estimates of Body Size in Asian Elephants.

Information on an organism's body size is pivotal in understanding its life history and fitness, as well as helping inform conservation measures. However, for many species, particularly large-bodied wild animals, taking accurate body size measurements can be a challenge. Various means to estimate body size have been employed, from more direct methods such as using photogrammetry to obtain height or length measurements, to indirect prediction of weight using other body morphometrics or even the size of dung boli. It is often unclear how accurate these measures are because they cannot be compared to objective measures. Here, we investigate how well existing estimation equations predict the actual body weight of Asian elephants Elephas maximus, using body measurements (height, chest girth, length, foot circumference and neck circumference) taken directly from a large population of semi-captive animals in Myanmar (n = 404). We then define new and better fitting formulas to predict body weight in Myanmar elephants from these readily available measures. We also investigate whether the important parameters height and chest girth can be estimated from photographs (n = 151). Our results show considerable variation in the ability of existing estimation equations to predict weight, and that the equations proposed in this paper predict weight better in almost all circumstances. We also find that measurements from standardised photographs reflect body height and chest girth after applying minor adjustments. Our results have implications for size estimation of large wild animals in the field, as well as for management in captive settings.VL received funding from the European Research Council and Leverhulme Trust for this study. HSM received a Natural Environmental Research Council PhD studentship, and post-doctoral funding from the Leverhulme Trust, Society in Science—Branco Weiss Fellowship and a Drapers' Company Junior Research Fellowship

Handler familiarity helps to improve working performance during novel situations in semi-captive Asian elephants

Working animals spend hours each day in close contact with humans and require training to understand commands and fulfil specific tasks. However, factors driving cooperation between humans and animals are still unclear, and novel situations may present challenges that have been little-studied to-date. We investigated factors driving cooperation between humans and animals in a working context through behavioural experiments with 52 working semi-captive Asian elephants. Human-managed Asian elephants constitute approximately a third of the remaining Asian elephants in the world, the majority of which live in their range countries working alongside traditional handlers. We investigated how the familiarity and experience of the handler as well as the elephant’s age and sex affected their responses when asked to perform a basic task and to cross a novel surface. The results highlighted that when novelty is involved in a working context, an elephant’s relationship length with their handler can affect their cooperation: elephants who had worked with their handler for over a year were more willing to cross the novel surface than those who had a shorter relationship with their handler. Older animals also tended to refuse to walk on the novel surface more but the sex did not affect their responses. Our study contributes much needed knowledge on human-working animal relationships which should be considered when adjusting training methods and working habits.</p

Evaluating the Reliability of Non-Specialist Observers in the Behavioural Assessment of Semi-Captive Asian Elephant Welfare

Recognising stress is an important component in maintaining the welfare of captive animal populations, and behavioural observation provides a rapid and non-invasive method to do this. Despite substantial testing in zoo elephants, there has been relatively little interest in the application of behavioural assessments to the much larger working populations of Asian elephants across Southeast Asia, which are managed by workers possessing a broad range of behavioural knowledge. Here, we developed a new ethogram of potential stress- and work-related behaviour for a semi-captive population of Asian elephants. We then used this to collect observations from video footage of over 100 elephants and evaluated the reliability of behavioural welfare assessments carried out by non-specialist observers. From observations carried out by different raters with no prior experience of elephant research or management, we tested the reliability of observations between-observers, to assess the general inter-observer agreement, and within-observers, to assess the consistency in behaviour identification. The majority of ethogram behaviours were highly reliable both between- and within-observers, suggesting that overall, behaviour was highly objective and could represent easily recognisable markers for behavioural assessments. Finally, we analysed the repeatability of individual elephant behaviour across behavioural contexts, demonstrating the importance of incorporating a personality element in welfare assessments. Our findings highlight the potential of non-expert observers to contribute to the reliable monitoring of Asian elephant welfare across large captive working populations, which may help to both improve elephant wellbeing and safeguard human workers.</p

Finishing the euchromatic sequence of the human genome

The sequence of the human genome encodes the genetic instructions for human physiology, as well as rich information about human evolution. In 2001, the International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium reported a draft sequence of the euchromatic portion of the human genome. Since then, the international collaboration has worked to convert this draft into a genome sequence with high accuracy and nearly complete coverage. Here, we report the result of this finishing process. The current genome sequence (Build 35) contains 2.85 billion nucleotides interrupted by only 341 gaps. It covers ∼99% of the euchromatic genome and is accurate to an error rate of ∼1 event per 100,000 bases. Many of the remaining euchromatic gaps are associated with segmental duplications and will require focused work with new methods. The near-complete sequence, the first for a vertebrate, greatly improves the precision of biological analyses of the human genome including studies of gene number, birth and death. Notably, the human enome seems to encode only 20,000-25,000 protein-coding genes. The genome sequence reported here should serve as a firm foundation for biomedical research in the decades ahead