Projecting health-care expenditure for Switzerland: further evidence against the 'red-herring' hypothesis

This paper contributes to the debate about the impact of population ageing on health care expenditure. Some health economists claim that the commonly presumed impact of population ageing is a "red herring". Based on empirical studies these authors conclude that proximity to death and not age per se matters. In projecting health care expenditure for Switzerland the present study provides evidence that proximity to death is of marginal importance. These projections suggest that population ageing is still the most important age-related cost-driver. Moreover, morbidity outweighs mortality as a factor of health-care expenditure. But most vital are non-demographic drivers such as medical progress. Thus, from the point of view of cost-benefit analysis one should even ignore costs of dying when projecting health care expenditure. Moreover, regressions might overestimate proximity to death due to systematic biases. Finally, ever-increasing health-care expenditure can be slowed down by appropriate policy measures.health-care expenditure; population ageing; public health-care budget; proximity to death, morbidity

Never the same after the first time: The satisfaction of the second-generation self-employed

Previous empirical work has shown that the self-employed are generally more satisfied than salaried workers. This paper contributes to the existing literature in two ways. First, using French data from the ECHP and British data from the BHPS, we investigate the domains over which this differential operates. We show that, after controlling for occupation, self-employed workers are generally more satisfied with working conditions and pay, but less satisfied than employees with respect to job security. We then consider the differences between the first- and second-generation self-employed. The first-generation self-employed (those whose parents were not self-employed) are more satisfied overall than are the second-generation self-employed. We argue that this finding is consistent with the self-employed partly comparing their labor market outcomes with those of their parents, as well as parental transfers which loosen the self-employment participation constraint. This result is found in both pooled and panel analysis.satisfaction ; self-employment ; parents ; intergenerational comparisons

The role of percolation threshold and water-magma interaction on volcanic eruptive style

Vulkanausbrüche werden durch den Aufstieg von Magma aus dem Erdinneren an die Oberfläche getrieben. Der Ausbruchsstil ist sehr variabel und reicht von heftigen, anhaltenden explosiven Eruptionen bis hin zur langsamen Extrusion von Lavaströmen oder Kuppeln. Folglich sind auch die damit verbundenen vulkanischen Gefahren sehr vielfältig. Der Eruptionsstil wird stark von Entga-sungsprozessen während des Magmenaufstiegs im Schlot oder in den flachen Schichten der Krus-te gesteuert, sowie der Umgebung (z.B. Luft, Wasser oder feuchte Sedimente), in die das Magma eruptiert wird. Die Art der Entgasung, die im Vulkanschlot (geschlossenes vs. offenes System) auftritt, hat eine große Bedeutung für den eruptiven Stil. Während der Entgasung im geschlossenen System führen Übersättigung und Ausfällung volatiler Phasen in Folge von Dekompression zu Blasenbil-dung und - wachstum. Dies resultiert in einem signifikanten Blasenüberdruck oder einer Beschleu-nigung des aufsteigenden Magmas, was zu einem explosiven Ausbruch führen kann. Bei der Ent-gasung im offenen System wiederum können die volatilen Phasen über die Schlotwände oder über miteinander verbundene poröse Wegsamkeiten aus dem Magma zur Atmosphäre entweichen. Die-se letztgenannte Art der Entgasung verhindert tendenziell die Ausbildung von signifikantem Blasen-überdruck oder Magmenbeschleunigung und begünstigt damit die effusive Aktivität. Der Übergang zwischen geschlossenem und offenem System erfolgt an dem Perkolationsschwellenwert, der die kritische Porosität beschreibt, bei der das Magma von inpermeabel zu permeabel (oder umgekehrt) übergeht. Dieser Schwellenwert kann z.B. durch Blasenkoaleszenz, Sprödbruch oder verdichten-dem Verschweißen im Schlot erreicht werden, wodurch das Magma zwischen überdruckgünstigen Bedingungen und Gasaustritt in der Leitung umschaltet. Der Perkolationsschwellenwert entspricht dem Beginn der Porenkonnektivität und Permeabilität und kann daher mit Hilfe dieser Parameter qualitativ und quantitativ eingeschränkt werden. Im Rahmen dieser Dissertation wurden die Konnektivität-Porosität-Beziehungen einer Serie von vulkanischen Gesteinen untersucht und in einer Datenbank aus Literaturwerten und eigenen Messungen zusammengestellt. Weiterhin wurde die Rolle von Kristallen auf den Perkolations-schwellenwert anhand von 4D-Synchrotron-Vesikulations- und Sinterexperimenten an kristallhalti-gen Magma-Analoga in Kombination mit Röntgenmikrotomographie durchgeführt. Die Kombination von Helium-Pyknometrie und Röntgen-Tomographie erlaubte es, die Methoden zur Quantifizierung des Perkolationsschwellenwert zu verbessern und den Unterschied zwischen den beiden Techni-ken gründlich zu untersuchen. Konnektivität-Porosität-Beziehungen wurden systematisch mit Permeabilität-Porosität-Beziehungen verglichen. Die Porenkonnektivität ist eine nützliche und bislang unzureichend genutzte Metrik, um eruptive Prozesse bei Vulkanausbrüchen zu untersuchen. Diese erlaubt zum Beispiel die Unter-scheidung zwischen vulkanischen Produkten, wie Gesteinen aus explosiver und effusiver Aktivität, Produkten der Vesikulation und Verdichtung und Scoria hawaiianischer oder strombolianischer Ak-tivität. Es ermöglicht auch eine bessere quantitative Bewertung des Perkolationsschwellenwertes im Vergleich zur Permeabilität, da dies bei Porositäten unterhalb und oberhalb dieser Schwelle er-mittelt werden kann, während dies bei der Permeabilität nicht möglich ist. Die Beziehungen zwi-schen Porenkonnektivität und Porosität, kombiniert mit einer texturellen Untersuchung der vulkani-schen Produkte, erlauben Rückschlüsse darauf, welche Entgasungsprozesse im Magma vor der Eruption vorherrschend waren. Diese Beziehungen bedürfen jedoch einer sorgfältigen Prüfung, da sich das Magma nach der Fragmentation und Ablagerung texturell weiterentwickeln kann. Außer-dem können unterschiedliche Entgasungsprozesse und Konnektivitäts-Porositätspfade zu sehr ähnlichen Endprodukten führen. Effusivgesteine lassen sich durch einen sehr niedrigen Perkolati-onsschwellenwert erklären, der durch Blasenverformung, Sprödbruch, Verdichtung und Vesikulati-on in hochkristallinen Schmelzen hervorgerufen wird und die Ausgasung und Reduzierung des Blasenüberdrucks begünstigt. Produkte primär explosiver Tätigkeit wie Scoria und Bimsstein wie-derum stammen meist aus kristallarmen Magmen mit einer stark polydispersen Blasengrößenver-teilung und häufig ohne Deformation, was alles zu einem hohen Perkolationsschwellenwert führt. Diese Magmen-Fragmente entstehen durch hohen Blasenüberdruck oder Magmenbeschleunigung, da der hohe Perkolationsschwellenwertden Gasaustritt in den Schlot behindert oder verzögert. Zu-künftige Studien sollten die Zusammenhänge zwischen Perkolationsschwellenwert, Entgasung und Fragmentation weiter untersuchen und die komplexe Wirkung des Perkolationsschwellenwertes in numerische Modelle zur Magmenentgasung in einem Vulkanschlot einbeziehen. Sobald Magma an der Erdoberfläche explosionsartig oder effusiv ausbricht, können weitere Veränderungen des eruptiven Stils durch die Eruptionsumgebung hervorgerufen werden. Bei-spielsweise wird das Vorhandensein von Meerwasser über dem eruptiven Schlot die eruptiven Prozesse wie Kühlung, Fragmentierung, Vesikulation und Aggregation aufgrund der unterschiedli-chen physikalischen, thermischen und chemischen Eigenschaften von Meerwasser im Vergleich zu Luft dramatisch verändern. Surtseyanische Ausbrüche sind flache subaquatische Ausbrüche, die oft im Laufe der Eruption die Wasseroberfläche durchbrechen, subaerisch werden und Tuffke-gel bilden. Die eruptiven Prozesse sind bei diesen Eruptionen sehr komplex, da sich die Wasser-Magma-Wechselwirkungen während der fortschreitenden Konstruktion des Tuffsteinkegels räum-lich und zeitlich entwickeln. Es ist von hoher Wichtigkeit, die eruptiven Prozesse während sur-tseyanischer Aktivität zu verstehen, da diese Art von subaquatischen Ausbrüchen Gefahren für Bevölkerung und Störungen des Flugverkehrs durch die hohe Bildung feiner Aschepartikel verur-sachen kann. Diese Arbeit untersucht die Rolle der Wasser-Magma-Wechselwirkung auf die eruptiven Prozesse während solcher surtseyanischer Ausbrüche und die Auswirkungen auf die damit ver-bundenen Gefahren. Lapilli und Bomben von mehreren surtseyanischen Ausbrüchen an den Vul-kanen Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai und Capelinhos wurden mittels Messungen von Porenmetriken und 3D-Texturanalyse mit Hilfe von Röntgenmikrotomographie analysiert. Die strukturellen Merk-male und Porenmetriken wurden mit numerischen thermischen Modellen kombiniert, um die Abküh-lungsdynamik in den Lapilli und Bomben zu begrenzen. Die mit dem thermischen Modell ermittelten Abkühlraten wurden mit Literaturdaten von Abkühlraten verglichen, die mit Hilfe der Geospeedo-metrie an subaquatischen Produkten gemessen wurden. Lapilli und Bomben, die während surtseyanischer Ausbrüche gebildet wurden, zeigen all-mähliche strukturelle Variationen mit einer Zunahme der Vesikelkonnektivität von Rand zu Kern, die durch die Vesikulation nach der Fragmentation verursacht wird, die in verschiedenen Stadien durch Abschrecken im Wasser unterbrochen wird. Die Abkühlung der Ränder der Lapilli erfolgt durch Wärmeleitung bei direktem Kontakt mit Wasser und durch Strahlung und Konvektion bei Vorhan-densein eines stabilen Dampffilms (Leidenfrost-Effekt). In beiden Fällen führen die hohen Abkühlra-ten an den Rändern zu einer raschen Abschreckung und Unterbrechung der Vesikulation, was die niedrigen Vesikularitäten und Vesikelkonnektivität erklärt. Im Kern sind die Abkühlungsraten viel niedriger und die Zeit, die für die Vesikulation zur Verfügung steht, ist dramatisch höher, was die höheren Vesikularitäten und Vesikelkonnektivität erklärt. Die Abkühlraten in Pyroklasten aus sub-aquatischen Ausbrüchen zeigen eine große Bandbreite, die hauptsächlich von der Partikelgröße, der Art der Abkühlung an der Oberfläche (direkter Kontakt Wasser oder Leidenfrost-Effekt), der Schmelztemperatur und der radialen Position im Partikel abhängen. Die hohen Abkühlraten an den Rändern und die niedrigen Abkühlraten in den Kernen der Lapilli verursachen eine hohe thermische Belastung an den Rändern. Dies führt zu thermischer Rissbildung und thermischer Granulierung der Ränder und zur Bildung von Aschepartikeln, die ascheumrandete Lapilli bilden, in denen die Aschepartikel puzzelmäßig ineinandergreifen. Lösungs-Experimente ergaben, dass die Bindung von Aschepartikeln in den Rändern der mit Asche umhüllten Lapilli durch erhebliche Salzausfällun-gen (meist NaCl und CaSO4) stabilisiert wird, die durch die Verdunstung von Meerwasser verur-sacht werden. Die Salzkonzentration kann möglicherweise als Indikator für den Grad der Wasser-Magma-Wechselwirkung bei surtseyanischen Ausbrüchen dienen. Die mit Asche umhüllten Lapilli galten früher als beschichtete oder gepanzerte Lapilli, die durch Aggregation in einer asche- und dampfreichen Umgebung gebildet wurden. Das neue Modell besagt, dass die Ummantelung nicht notwendigerweise ein Beweis für die Aggregation von Partikeln ist, sondern vielmehr aus der Bil-dung neuer primärer Asche resultieren kann, mit deutlichen Auswirkungen auf die damit verbunde-nen Gefahren. Die thermische Granulierung gilt als ein wichtiger Mechanismus, der bei surtseyani-schen Ausbrüchen zur Aschebildung führt. In zukünftigen Studien wird das Verständnis des Gleichgewichts zwischen der Aggregation in der Aschewolke und der subaquatischen Produktion von Asche durch thermische Granulation ein Schlüsselfaktor für eine bessere Abschätzung poten-zieller Gefahren im Zusammenhang mit der Aschedispersion in flachen subaquatischen Settings sein. Diese Arbeit kombiniert 3D-Röntgen-Tomographie, porenmetrische Messungen, experimen-telle Arbeiten an Magma-Analoga, numerische Modellierung und chemische Analysen, um unser Wissen über den Einfluss von Entgasungsprozessen und Wasser-Magma-Interaktion auf den Stil von Vulkanausbrüchen und die damit verbundenen Gefahren zu verfeinern. Dieser Ansatz führte zu innovativen Ergebnissen mit neuartigen Schlussfolgerungen über die Mechanismen, die effusi-ve-explosive Übergänge während des Magmaaufstiegs auslösen, sowie für die Modifikationen von eruptiven Prozessen und Gefahren, die durch die Abkühlung im Wasser an der Erdoberfläche her-vorgerufen werden.Volcanic eruptions are driven by the generation and ascent of magma from the earth interior to its surface. The style of volcanic eruptions is highly variable and ranges from violent, sustained explo-sive eruptions to slow extrusion of lava flows or domes. Consequently, the related volcanic hazards are also highly diverse. Eruptive style is strongly controlled by degassing processes in the conduit during magma ascent at shallow levels of the crust as well as by the nature of the eruptive, cooling environment (e.g., air, water or wet sediments). The type of degassing occurring in the conduit (closed- vs. open-system) has a major con-trol on the eruptive style. During closed-system degassing, volatile exsolution leads to bubble nucle-ation and growth during decompression, causing significant bubble overpressure or acceleration of the gas phase possibly resulting in explosive fragmentation of the magma. During open-system de-gassing, in turn, the volatiles can freely escape from the magma to the conduit walls or the atmos-phere through interconnected porous pathways. This latter mode of degassing tends to impede sig-nificant bubble overpressure or acceleration and hence promotes effusive activity. The transition between closed- and open-system conditions occurs at the percolation threshold, which is the criti-cal porosity at which the magma transitions from impermeable to permeable (or vice versa). This threshold can be achieved for instance via bubble coalescence, brittle fracturing or densification in the conduit, causing the magma to switch between conditions favourable for overpressure and gas escape in the conduit. The percolation threshold corresponds to the onset of pore connectivity and permeability and can therefore be qualitatively to quantitatively constrained using these metrics. I studied the connectivity-porosity relationships of a suite of volcanic rocks, compiled in a database from literature and own measurements. I also examined the role of crystals on the perco-lation threshold by performing 4D synchrotron vesiculation and sintering experiments on crystal-bearing magma analogues combined to X-ray micro-tomography. Combination of Helium pyc-nometry and X-ray tomography techniques allowed to improve the methods for quantification of the percolation threshold and the difference between the two techniques was thoroughly examined. Connectivity-porosity relationships were systematically compared to permeability-porosity relation-ships. Pore connectivity is a useful and underutilized metric to study the eruptive processes during volcanic eruptions. First, it allows distinguishing between subsets of volcanic products, including rocks derived from explosive and effusive activity, products of vesiculation and densification and scoria of Hawaiian and Strombolian activity. It also allows a better quantitative assessment of the percolation threshold compared to permeability because it can be constrained at porosities below and above this threshold, whereas permeability cannot. Pore connectivity-porosity relationships, combined with a textural study of the volcanic products, allow to infer which degassing processes were dominant in the parent magma prior to the eruption. However, these relationships require careful consideration because the magma can continue to evolve texturally after fragmentation or emplacement. Besides, different degassing processes and connectivity-porosity paths can lead to very similar final erupted products. Effusive rocks can be explained by very low percolation thresh-old due to bubble deformation, brittle fracturing, densification and vesiculation in highly crystalline melts, which all promote outgassing and reduction of bubble overpressure. In turn, products from explosive activity such as scoria and pumices originate mostly from crystal-poor magmas with a highly polydisperse bubble size distribution which all tend to increase the percolation threshold. These magmas fragment due to high bubble overpressure or acceleration of the gas phase due to a high percolation threshold which impedes or delays gas escape in the conduit. Future studies should further examine the relationships between percolation threshold, degassing and fragmentation and incorporate the complex effect of the percolation threshold in numerical models of conduit degas-sing. Once magma is erupted explosively or effusively at the earth surface, further modifications of the eruptive style can be induced by the cooling environment. For instance, the presence of seawater above the eruptive vent in subaqueous settings will dramatically alter the eruptive pro-cesses such as cooling, fragmentation, vesiculation and aggregation because of the different phys-ical, thermal and chemical properties of seawater compared to air. Surtseyan eruptions are shallow subaqueous eruptions becoming progressively emergent and leading to the formation of tuff cones. The eruptive processes are highly complex during these eruptions because the water-magma inter-actions evolves spatially and temporally during progressive construction of the tuff cone. It is of paramount importance to understand the eruptive processes during Surtseyan activity because this type of subaqueous eruptions can cause hazards to populations and disturbance of air traffic due to extensive generation of fine ash particles. This thesis investigates the role of water-magma interaction on the eruptive processes dur-ing Surtseyan eruptions and the implications for related hazards. Lapilli and bombs from several Surtseyan eruptions at Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai and Capelinhos volcanoes were analysed via measurements of pore metrics and 3D textural analysis via X-ray micro-tomography. The textural features and pore metrics were combined with numerical thermal modelling in order to constrain the cooling dynamics in the lapilli and bombs. Cooling rates obtained with the thermal model were compared to literature data of cooling rates measured by geospeedometry on subaqueous prod-ucts. Leaching experiments were then performed in order to constrain the role of salts on particle binding in Surtseyan deposits. Lapilli and bombs formed during Surtseyan eruptions exhibit gradual textural variations with increase of vesicle connectivity from margin to core caused by post-fragmentation vesiculation in-terrupted at different stages by quenching in water. Cooling of the margins of the lapilli occurs by conduction in the case of direct contact with water and by radiation and convection in the case of the presence of a stable vapour film (Leidenfrost effect). In both cases, the high cooling rates at the margins induce rapid quenching and interruption of vesiculation, explaining the low vesicularities and vesicle connectivities. In the core, the cooling rates are much lower and the time available for vesiculation is dramatically higher, explaining the higher vesicularities and vesicle connectivities. Cooling rates in pyroclasts from subaqueous eruptions show a wide range of values, depending mostly on the particle size, type of cooling at the surface (direct contact of Leidenfrost effect), melt temperature and radial position in the particle. The high cooling rates at the margins and low cooling rates in the cores of the lapilli cause high levels of thermal stress at the margins. This leads to ther-mal cracking and in situ thermal granulation of the margins and generation of ash particles that are kept in place in a jigsaw fit pattern, forming ash-encased lapilli. Leaching experiments revealed that the binding of ash particles in the ash rims of the ash-encased lapilli is stabilized by substantial salt precipitation (mostly NaCl and CaSO4) caused by seawater evaporation. Salt concentrations can potentially serve as an indicator of the degree of water-magma interaction during Surtseyan erup-tions occurring in seawater settings. Ash-encased lapilli were previously considered coated or ar-moured lapilli formed by aggregation in an ash and vapour-rich environment. The new model pre-sented here implies that encasement is not necessarily evidence of particle aggregation, but can instead result from new primary ash formation, with distinct implications for related hazards. Ther-mal granulation is considered an important disruption mechanism causing the generation of ash during Surtseyan eruptions. In future studies, understanding the balance between in-plume aggre-gation and subaqueous production of ash by thermal granulation will be a key for better assessment of potential hazards related to ash dispersal in Surtseyan settings. This thesis combined 3D X-ray tomography, pore metric measurements, experimental work on magma analogues, numerical modelling and chemical analysis to refine our knowledge of the influence of degassing processes and water-magma interaction on the style of volcanic eruptions and their related hazards. This approach yielded innovative results with novel implications for the mechanisms triggering effusive-explosive transitions during magma ascent and the modifications of eruptive processes and hazards induced by magma cooling in water at the earth surface

Never the Same After the First Time: The Satisfaction of the Second-Generation Self-Employed

Previous empirical work has shown that the self-employed are generally more satisfied than salaried workers. This paper contributes to the existing literature in two ways. First, using French data from the ECHP and British data from the BHPS, we investigate the domains over which this differential operates. We show that, after controlling for occupation, self-employed workers are generally more satisfied with working conditions and pay, but less satisfied than employees with respect to job security. We then consider the differences between the first- and second-generation self-employed. The first-generation self-employed (those whose parents were not self-employed) are more satisfied overall than are the second-generation self-employed. We argue that this finding is consistent with the self-employed partly comparing their labor market outcomes with those of their parents, as well as parental transfers which loosen the self-employment participation constraint. This result is found in both pooled and panel analysis.self-employment, satisfaction, intergenerational comparisons, parents

First-principles calculations of heat capacities of ultrafast laser-excited electrons in metals

Ultrafast laser excitation can induce fast increases of the electronic subsystem temperature. The subsequent electronic evolutions in terms of band structure and energy distribution can determine the change of several thermodynamic properties, including one essential for energy deposition; the electronic heat capacity. Using density functional calculations performed at finite electronic temperatures, the electronic heat capacities dependent on electronic temperatures are obtained for a series of metals, including free electron like, transition and noble metals. The effect of exchange and correlation functionals and the presence of semicore electrons on electronic heat capacities are first evaluated and found to be negligible in most cases. Then, we tested the validity of the free electron approaches, varying the number of free electrons per atom. This shows that only simple metals can be correctly fitted with these approaches. For transition metals, the presence of localized d electrons produces a strong deviation toward high energies of the electronic heat capacities, implying that more energy is needed to thermally excite them, compared to free sp electrons. This is attributed to collective excitation effects strengthened by a change of the electronic screening at high temperature

Decarbonizing the EU power sector: policy approaches in the light of current trends and long-term trajectories

ASSESSMENT European climate policy is gradually shifting towards a long-term perspec- tive. The electricity sector has a crucial role to play in the long-term decar- bonization of the EU economy. It makes up a significant share of EU emis- sions and can contribute to the reduction of emissions in other sectors, particularly buildings and transport. The EU 2008 Climate and Energy Package (CEP) took a significant step towards a low-carbon future, initi- ating a very ambitious program of renewables expansion and strengthen- ing the ETS. However, the omissions and internal inconsistencies of the CEP are becoming more and more evident. This relates in particular to the absence of long-term, comprehensive signals for decarbonization and the imbalance between the ETS, energy efficiency and renewables objectives. This risks delaying and distorting investment in low-carbon infrastructure and ideas, raising the ultimate cost of climate policy. In view of the inertias within the electricity sector, it is imperative for the EU to set a long-term signal for the decarbonization of the sector by set- ting 2030 objectives for the ETS and complementary policies. The EU’s decarbonization strategy needs to be robust against future uncertainties; strengthening a technology neutral instrument like the ETS can provide a key part of a comprehensive signal to develop the full range of decarbon- ization options. The instrument imbalance also needs to be addressed. Demand side policies should be the point of departure for supply side interventions: ETS caps should be set so as to achieve carbon scarcity after energy efficiency and RES objectives have been taken into account. A short-term adjustment of scarcity in the ETS may create some incen- tives for low-carbon investment. However, it would not address the funda- mental concern, namely the lack of policy information regarding the post 2020 environment in which these investment will amortize.European climate policy; 2050 decarbonization; European emissions trading scheme; renewables policy

Group and individual risk preferences : a lottery-choice experiment

This paper focuses on decision making under risk, comparing group and individual risk preferences in a lottery-choice experiment inspired by Holt and Laury (2002). The experiment presents subjects with a menu of unordered lottery choices which allows us to measure risk aversion. In the individual treatment, subjects make lottery choices individually ; in the group treatment, each subject was placed in an anonymous group of three, where unanimous lottery choice decisions were made via voting. Finally, in a third treatment, called the choice treatment, subjects could choose whether to be on their own or in a group. Our main findings are that groups are more likely than individuals to choose safe lotteries for decisions with low winning percentages. Moreover, groups converge toward less risky decisions because subjects who were relatively less risk averse were more likely to change their vote in order to conform to the group average decision ; more risk-averse individuals were less likely to change their preferences. Finally our results reveal a positive relationship between preference for risk and willingness to decide alone.Experiment, decision rule, individual decision, group decision.

Functional Locking Modules for Design Protection of Intellectual Property Cores

International audienceElectronics systems design is increasingly uses Intellectual Property (IP) cores. The means, however, that can renderthe IP core unusable if it has been obtained illegally have not yet been identified. We describe lightweight locking schemes lacking in the state of the art

Hydrodynamic simulations of metal ablation by femtosecond laser irradiation

Ablation of Cu and Al targets has been performed with 170 fs laser pulses in the intensity range of 10^12-10^14 W/cm^2. We compare the measured removal depth with 1D hydrodynamic simulations. The electron-ion temperature decoupling is taken into account using the standard "two-temperature model". The influence of the early heat transfer by electronic thermal conduction on hydrodynamic material expansion and mechanical behavior is investigated. A good agreement between experimental and numerical matter ablation rates shows the importance of including solid-to-vapor evolution of the metal in the current modeling of the laser matter interaction