The Human Pancreas in Type 1 Diabetes

Die Studie des menschlichen T1D (Type 1 Diabetes), als eine Autoimmunerkrankung der Bauchspeicheldrüse, könnte man mit der Entdeckung von Insulin unter Verwendung von pankreatectomisierten Tieren argumentieren. Es folgten Studien zur Verfeinerung des Insulinersatzes, Verbesserung der Technologien und zur Untersuchung von Stoffwechsel- und Autoimmunphänomenen in Blutproben. Während Tiermodelle eine Endorgananalyse erlaubten, war die Untersuchung der menschlichen Bauchspeicheldrüse im Vergleich zu Studien mit peripherem Blut stark eingeschränkt. Anhand der so genannten peripheren Blutstudien, die nPOD (Network for Pancreatic Organ Donors with Diabetes), konnte eine menschliche Bauchspeicheldrüsenbank mit Proben von Personen zusammenzustellt werden, die durch die Analyse peripherer Blut-Autoantikörper (Wasserfall, et al., 2016) für T1D als risikoreich eingestuft wurde [CW 1]. Das Hauptziel meiner Dissertation bestand darin, mit diesen noch immer ansteigenden Proben, einige grundlegende Fragen der menschlichen T1D-Biologie zu beantworten. Zuerst konnten meine Kollegen und ich Insulitis bei Autoantikörper-positiven Probanden und bei Patienten mit T1D-Diagnose (Campbell-Thompson, et al., 2016a) studieren [CW 2]. Dabei fanden wir in 2 von 5 Pankreasproben Insulitis von Autoantikörper-positiven Probanden, beide mit der Kombination GADA und IA-2A. In Pankreasproben von T1D-Spendern mit weniger als einem Jahr Krankheitsdauer hatten 100% der Patienten eine Insulitis. Während, in denen mit mehr als einem Jahr Krankheitsdauer, 23% der Insulitis aufzeigten. Dies impliziert, dass die Insulitis vorwiegend zum Krankheitsbeginn auftritt und danach abnimmt. Das steht im extremen Gegensatz zum NOD-Mausmodell, bei dem Insulitis sehr früh auftritt und bei 100% der Inzuchtmäuse, unabhängig davon, ob sie T1D entwickeln oder nicht. Auch im Gegensatz zum NOD, während β-Zellmasse in T1D-Pankreasproben reduziert wurde, fehlte es nicht ganz. Wir bestätigten ebenfalls die Ergebnisse einer reduzierten Gesamtmasse menschlicher T1D-Pankreasproben, die nicht durch fehlende β-Zellen erklärt werden, da die nur einen kleinen Teil des Organs ausmachen. Dies impliziert den Verlust von exokrinem Gewebe in einer Art und Weise, die bis heute ungeklärt bleibt. Weiterhin haben wir getestet, ob Komplement eine potenzielle Rolle in T1D spielt, indem die C4d-Deposition als Marker für (Auto) Antikörpervermittelte Ereignisse verwendet wurde (Rowe, et al., 2013) [CW 3]. Unerwarteterweise fanden wir heraus, dass es erhöhte C4d Antikörperfärbung in T1D Pankreasproben gab. Dies implizierte die Verteilung potentieller exokriner Entzündungen und nicht unbedingt Insel-spezifische Ereignisse. Ob dies mit den Befunden der kleineren Bauchspeicheldrüse in T1D zusammenhängt, ist eine naheliegende Frage für zukünftige Studien. Bei der Zusammenstellung dieser Begriffe verwendete ich eine Technik, um Proteine aus gefrorenen Abschnitten der Bauchspeicheldrüse zu extrahieren und fand die Persistenz von Proinsulin, während die Insulin- und C-Peptid-Konzentrationen niedrig bis nicht nachweisbar durch ELISA in T1D-Proben waren (Wasserfall, et al., 2017) [CW 4]. Weiterhin konnten wir zeigen, dass INS mRNA durch ISH und RT-qPCR zusammen mit Proinsulin und Insulin durch Immunhistochemie anwesend war. Wir waren ebenfalls in der Lage, die Progression von T1D semi-quantifizieren, durch den Verlust von Insulin in Inselchen, sondern die Persistenz von Insulin-positiven Einzelzellen mit längerer Krankheitsdauer. Das Enzym PCSK1 wurde außerdem in T1D-Proben durch RT-qPCR reduziert, was auf einen möglichen Mechanismus für die unvollständige Verarbeitung von Proinsulin zu reifem Insulin und CPeptid hindeutet. Die Aufklärung dieses Prozesses und die Frage, ob die einzelnen insulinpositiven Zellen als therapeutische Option gerettet werden können oder ob sie die Zellen von β dedifferenzieren, werden in Zukunft weiterverfolgt.:TABLE OF CONTENTS II LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS IV LIST OF FIGURES V SUMMARY 1 1 MOTIVATION 1 2 STATE OF THE ART 6 2.1 Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease 6 2.2 Models of type 1 diabetes 6 2.3 Humoral immune responses in type 1 diabetes 7 2.4 Genetics and Cell mediated immunity in type 1 diabetes 8 2.5 The lesion in type 1 diabetes 11 2.6 Prediction of type 1 diabetes in the general human population 14 3 OBJECTIVES 17 4 OWN RESEARCH RESULTS 19 4.1 Screening organ donors for type 1 diabetes autoantibodies is feasible 19 4.2 The insulitis lesion in humans reveals the heterogeneity of type 1 diabetes 20 4.3 Complement deposition in the human pancreas is not specific to islet blood vessels 22 4.4 The pancreas of individuals with type 1 diabetes shows progressive loss of insulin, but proinsulin persists 22 5 DISCUSSION 26 5.1 Even with a low prevalence disease such as T1D it is possible to screen organ donors for the presence of disease specific autoantibodies 26 5.2 Insulitis in the natural history of T1D 26 5.3 Complement deposition in the natural history of T1D 28 5.4 Presence of endocrine hormones in the natural history of T1D 29 6 RESUME 31 SUMMARY GERMAN 33 BIBLIOGRAPHY 35 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 53 [CW1] Validation of a rapid type 1 diabetes screening assay for community-based screening of organ donors to identify subjects at increased risk for the disease 54 [CW2] Insulitis and β-Cell Mass in the Natural History of Type 1 Diabetes 66 [CW3] Increased Complement Activation in Human Type 1 Diabetes Pancreata 82 [CW4] Persistence of Pancreatic Insulin mRNA Expression and Proinsulin Protein in Type 1 Diabetes Pancreata 87 CURRICULUM VITAE 101 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 121 SELBSTSTÄNDIGKEITSERKLÄRUNG 124 ANLAGE 1 125 ANLAGE 2 12

Respiratory health and immunological profile of poultry workers

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The granulocyte colony stimulating factor pathway regulates autoantibody production in a murine induced model of systemic lupus erythematosus

INTRODUCTION: An NZB-derived genetic locus (Sle2c2) that suppresses autoantibody production in a mouse model of induced systemic lupus erythematosus contains a polymorphism in the gene encoding the G-CSF receptor. This study was designed to test the hypothesis that the Sle2c2 suppression is associated with an impaired G-CSF receptor function that can be overcome by exogenous G-CSF. METHODS: Leukocytes from B6.Sle2c2 and B6 congenic mice, which carry a different allele of the G-CSF receptor, were compared for their responses to G-CSF. Autoantibody production was induced with the chronic graft-versus-host-disease (cGVHD) model by adoptive transfer of B6.bm12 splenocytes. Different treatment regimens varying the amount and frequency of G-CSF (Neulasta(®)) or carrier control were tested on cGVHD outcomes. Autoantibody production, immune cell activation, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production were compared between the two strains with the various treatments. In addition, the effect of G-CSF treatment was examined on the production autoantibodies in the B6.Sle1.Sle2.Sle3 (B6.TC) spontaneous model of lupus. RESULTS: B6.Sle2c2 and B6 leukocytes responded differently to G-CSF. G-CSF binding by B6.Sle2c2 leukocytes was reduced as compared to B6, which was associated with a reduced expansion in response to in vivo G-CSF treatment. G-CSF in vivo treatment also failed to mobilize bone-marrow B6.Sle2c2 neutrophils as it did for B6 neutrophils. In contrast, the expression of G-CSF responsive genes indicated a higher G-CSF receptor signaling in B6.Sle2c2 cells. G-CSF treatment restored the ability of B6.Sle2c2 mice to produce autoantibodies in a dose-dependent manner upon cGVHD induction, which correlated with restored CD4(+ )T cells activation, as well as dendritic cell and granulocyte expansion. Steady-state ROS production was higher in B6.Sle2c2 than in B6 mice. cGVHD induction resulted in a larger increase in ROS production in B6 than in B6.Sle2c2 mice, and this difference was eliminated with G-CSF treatment. Finally, a low dose G-CSF treatment accelerated the production of anti-dsDNA IgG in young B6.TC mice. CONCLUSION: The different in vivo and in vitro responses of B6.Sle2c2 leukocytes are consistent with the mutation in the G-CSFR having functional consequences. The elimination of Sle2c2 suppression of autoantibody production by exogenous G-CSF indicates that Sle2c2 corresponds to a loss of function of G-CSF receptor. This result was corroborated by the increased anti-dsDNA IgG production in G-CSF-treated B6.TC mice, which also carry the Sle2c2 locus. Overall, these results suggest that the G-CSF pathway regulates the production of autoantibodies in murine models of lupus

Influence of Membrane CD25 Stability on T Lymphocyte Activity: Implications for Immunoregulation

CD25, a component of the IL-2 receptor, is important in T cell proliferation, activation induced cell death, as well as the actions of both regulatory (Treg) and effector (Teff) T cells. Recent genome wide association studies have implicated the CD25 locus as an important region for genetic susceptibility to a number of autoimmune disorders, with serum levels of soluble CD25 receptor (sCD25) serving as a potential phenotypic marker for this association. However, the functional impact of CD25 cleavage, as well as the influence of sCD25 on immunoregulatory activities, remain largely unknown and form the basis of this effort.The generation of sCD25 by Treg (CD4(+)CD25(+)) and Teff (CD4(+)CD25(-)) cells was examined during in vitro suppression assays, efforts that demonstrated constitutive and stable surface CD25 expression on Treg throughout the period of in vitro assessment. In contrast, Teff cells increased CD25 expression during the process of in vitro suppression, with supernatant sCD25 levels correlating to the amount of cellular proliferation. Interestingly, under serum-free conditions, Tregs partially lost their characteristic anergic and suppressive properties. sCD25 supplementation at physiological concentrations to serum free in vitro suppression assays reduced Teff proliferation without specifically influencing suppression. Indeed, sCD25 production within these cultures correlated with cell death.These results support the notion that sCD25 functions as both a surrogate marker of T cell activation as well as an indicator of subsequent cellular death. In addition, the role of CD25 in immunomodulation is likely dependent on the local inflammatory milieu, with molecules capable of modulating surface CD25 expression playing a key role in defining immune responsiveness

Combination Therapy With Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 and Gastrin Restores Normoglycemia in Diabetic NOD Mice

OBJECTIVE—Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and gastrin promote pancreatic β-cell function, survival, and growth. Here, we investigated whether GLP-1 and gastrin can restore the β-cell mass and reverse hyperglycemia in NOD mice with autoimmune diabetes

Alpha-1 antitrypsin protein and gene therapies decrease autoimmunity and delay arthritis development in mouse model

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Alpha-1 antitrypsin (AAT) is a multi-functional protein that has anti-inflammatory and tissue protective properties. We previously reported that human AAT (hAAT) gene therapy prevented autoimmune diabetes in non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice and suppressed arthritis development in combination with doxycycline in mice. In the present study we investigated the feasibility of hAAT monotherapy for the treatment of chronic arthritis in collagen-induced arthritis (CIA), a mouse model of rheumatoid arthritis (RA).</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>DBA/1 mice were immunized with bovine type II collagen (bCII) to induce arthritis. These mice were pretreated either with hAAT protein or with recombinant adeno-associated virus vector expressing hAAT (rAAV-hAAT). Control groups received saline injections. Arthritis development was evaluated by prevalence of arthritis and arthritic index. Serum levels of B-cell activating factor of the TNF-α family (BAFF), antibodies against both bovine (bCII) and mouse collagen II (mCII) were tested by ELISA.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Human AAT protein therapy as well as recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV8)-mediated hAAT gene therapy significantly delayed onset and ameliorated disease development of arthritis in CIA mouse model. Importantly, hAAT therapies significantly reduced serum levels of BAFF and autoantibodies against bCII and mCII, suggesting that the effects are mediated via B-cells, at least partially.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>These results present a new drug for arthritis therapy. Human AAT protein and gene therapies are able to ameliorate and delay arthritis development and reduce autoimmunity, indicating promising potential of these therapies as a new treatment strategy for RA.</p

Influence of Fecal Sample Storage on Bacterial Community Diversity

Previous studies have identified a correlation, either positive or negative, between specific stool bacteria strains and certain autoimmune diseases. These conflicting data may relate to sample collection. The aim of this work was to evaluate the influence of the collection parameters of time and temperature on bacterial community composition. Samples were taken from healthy children and immediately divided in 5 sub-samples. One sample was frozen immediately at -80°C, while the other aliquots were frozen 12, 24, 48, and 72h later DNA extracted from each sample was used to amplify the 16S rRNA with barcoded primers. The amplified products were pooled and partial 16S rRNA sequences were obtained by pyrosequencing. Person-to-person variability in community diversity was high. A list of those taxa that comprise at least 1% of the community was made for each individual. None of these were present in high numbers in all individuals. The Bacteroides were present in the highest abundance in three of four subjects. A total of 23,701 16S rRNA sequences were obtained with an average of 1,185 reads per sample with an average length of 200 bases. Although pyrosequencing of amplified 16S rRNA identified changes in community composition over time (~10%), little diversity change was observed at 12 hours (3.06%) with gradual changes occurring after 24 (8.61%), 48 (9.72%), and 72 h (10.14%), post collection

Footprint of pancreas infiltrating and circulating immune cells throughout type 1 diabetes development

IntroductionType 1 diabetes (T1D) is defined by immune cell infiltration of the pancreas, in particular the islets of Langerhans, referred to as insulitis, which is especially prominent during the early disease stages in association with decreased beta cell mass. An in-depth understanding of the dynamics and phenotype of the immune cells infiltrating the pancreas and the accompanying changes in their profiles in peripheral blood during T1D development is critical to generate novel preventive and therapeutic approaches, as well as to find biomarkers for the disease process.MethodsUsing multi-parameter flow cytometry, we explored the dynamic changes of immune cells infiltrating the pancreas and the pancreatic draining lymph nodes (PLN), compared to those in peripheral blood in female and male non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice during T1D progression.ResultsThe early stages of T1D development were characterized by an influx of innate dendritic cells and neutrophils in the pancreas. While dendritic cells seemed to move in and out (to the PLN), neutrophils accumulated during the pre-symptomatic phase and reached a maximum at 8 weeks of age, after which their numbers declined. During disease progression, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells appeared to continuously migrate from the PLN to the pancreas, which coincided with an increase in beta cell autoimmunity and insulitis severity, and a decline in insulin content. At 12 weeks of age, CD4+ and especially CD8+ T cells in the pancreas showed a dramatic shift from naïve to effector memory phenotype, in contrast to the PLN, where most of these cells remained naïve. A large proportion of pancreas infiltrating CD4+ T cells were naïve, indicating that antigenic stimulation was not necessary to traffic and invade the pancreas. Interestingly, a pre-effector-like T cell dominated the peripheral blood. These cells were intermediates between naïve and effector memory cells as identified by single cell RNA sequencing and might be a potential novel therapeutic target.ConclusionThese time- and tissue-dependent changes in the dynamics and functional states of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells are essential steps in our understanding of the disease process in NOD mice and need to be considered for the interpretation and design of disease-modifying therapies

Antithymocyte Globulin Plus G-CSF Combination Therapy Leads to Sustained Immunomodulatory and Metabolic Effects in a Subset of Responders With Established Type 1 Diabetes.

Low-dose antithymocyte globulin (ATG) plus pegylated granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) preserves β-cell function for at least 12 months in type 1 diabetes. Herein, we describe metabolic and immunological parameters 24 months following treatment. Patients with established type 1 diabetes (duration 4-24 months) were randomized to ATG and pegylated G-CSF (ATG+G-CSF) (N = 17) or placebo (N = 8). Primary outcomes included C-peptide area under the curve (AUC) following a mixed-meal tolerance test (MMTT) and flow cytometry. "Responders" (12-month C-peptide ≥ baseline), "super responders" (24-month C-peptide ≥ baseline), and "nonresponders" (12-month C-peptide &lt; baseline) were evaluated for biomarkers of outcome. At 24 months, MMTT-stimulated AUC C-peptide was not significantly different in ATG+G-CSF (0.49 nmol/L/min) versus placebo (0.29 nmol/L/min). Subjects treated with ATG+G-CSF demonstrated reduced CD4+ T cells and CD4+/CD8+ T-cell ratio and increased CD16+CD56hi natural killer cells (NK), CD4+ effector memory T cells (Tem), CD4+PD-1+ central memory T cells (Tcm), Tcm PD-1 expression, and neutrophils. FOXP3+Helios+ regulatory T cells (Treg) were elevated in ATG+G-CSF subjects at 6, 12, and 18 but not 24 months. Immunophenotyping identified differential HLA-DR expression on monocytes and NK and altered CXCR3 and PD-1 expression on T-cell subsets. As such, a group of metabolic and immunological responders was identified. A phase II study of ATG+G-CSF in patients with new-onset type 1 diabetes is ongoing and may support ATG+G-CSF as a prevention strategy in high-risk subjects