Sharing is caring: Addressing shared issues and challenges in hate speech research

This book is the result of a conference that could not take place. It is a collection of 26 texts that address and discuss the latest developments in international hate speech research from a wide range of disciplinary perspectives. This includes case studies from Brazil, Lebanon, Poland, Nigeria, and India, theoretical introductions to the concepts of hate speech, dangerous speech, incivility, toxicity, extreme speech, and dark participation, as well as reflections on methodological challenges such as scraping, annotation, datafication, implicity, explainability, and machine learning. As such, it provides a much-needed forum for cross-national and cross-disciplinary conversations in what is currently a very vibrant field of research

Mapping Offensive Language in German User Comments on Immigration

Abstract In recent debates on offensive language in participatory online spaces, the term ‘hate speech’ has become especially prominent. Originating from a legal context, the term usually refers to violent threats or expressions of prejudice against particular groups on the basis of race, religion, or sexual orientation. However, due to its explicit reference to the emotion of hate, it is also used more colloquially as a general label for any kind of negative expression. This ambiguity leads to misunderstandings in discussions about hate speech and challenges its identification. To meet this challenge, this article provides a modularized framework to differentiate various forms of hate speech and offensive language. On the basis of this framework, we present a text annotation study of 5,031 user comments on the topic of immigration and refuge posted in March 2019 on three German news sites, four Facebook pages, 13 YouTube channels, and one right-wing blog. An in-depth analysis of these comments identifies various types of hate speech and offensive language targeting immigrants and refugees. By exploring typical combinations of labeled attributes, we empirically map the variety of offensive language in the subject area ranging from insults to calls for hate crimes, going beyond the common ‘hate/no-hate’ dichotomy found in similar studies. The results are discussed with a focus on the grey area between hate speech and offensive language

From Insult to Hate Speech: Mapping Offensive Language in German User Comments on Immigration

In recent debates on offensive language in participatory online spaces, the term ‘hate speech’ has become especially prominent. Originating from a legal context, the term usually refers to violent threats or expressions of prejudice against particular groups on the basis of race, religion, or sexual orientation. However, due to its explicit reference to the emotion of hate, it is also used more colloquially as a general label for any kind of negative expression. This ambiguity leads to misunderstandings in discussions about hate speech and challenges its identification. To meet this challenge, this article provides a modularized framework to differentiate various forms of hate speech and offensive language. On the basis of this framework, we present a text annotation study of 5,031 user comments on the topic of immigration and refuge posted in March 2019 on three German news sites, four Facebook pages, 13 YouTube channels, and one right-wing blog. An in-depth analysis of these comments identifies various types of hate speech and offensive language targeting immigrants and refugees. By exploring typical combinations of labeled attributes, we empirically map the variety of offensive language in the subject area ranging from insults to calls for hate crimes, going beyond the common ‘hate/no-hate’ dichotomy found in similar studies. The results are discussed with a focus on the grey area between hate speech and offensive language

Diskursarchitekturen deutscher Nachrichtenseiten

Viele Redaktionen haben in den vergangenen Jahren Maßnahmen ergriffen, um ausfallenden Nutzerbeiträgen, Beleidigungen und Hassrede in den Kommentarspalten und Diskussionsforen ihrer Internetseiten zu begegnen. Neben der Formulierung von Community-Richtlinien, manueller Kommentarmoderation und dem Einsatz von Monitoringsoftware kommt dabei der "Diskursarchitektur", der technischen Ausgestaltung dieser Kommentarbereiche, eine große Bedeutung zu. Dazu zählen etwa verschiedene Formen der Registrierung, die Sortierung der Kommentarthreads oder verschiedene Grade der Anonymisierung. Die bisherige Forschung zu dem Thema hat solche Diskursarchitekturen zumeist in Fallstudien vergleichend untersucht, um möglichen Effekten der technischen Umgebung auf das Kommentarverhalten nachzuspüren. Die einzelnen Bestandteile von Diskursarchitekturen wurden dabei in der Regel analytisch nicht differenziert. Dieser Lücke widmet sich der vorliegende Beitrag und präsentiert eine Studie, in der alle von der IVW ausgewiesenen 361 redaktionell betreuten deutschen Nachrichtenseiten differenziert auf zehn verschiedene Merkmale hin analysiert wurden. Dabei zeigt sich, dass jene 173 Nachrichtenseiten, die überhaupt Kommentarspalten anbieten, ihre Möglichkeiten zur technischen Regulierung bei Weitem nicht ausschöpfen. Mit Hilfe einer hierarchischen Clusteranalyse wurden schließlich fünf distinkte Typen von Diskursarchitekturen in Kommentarspalten identifiziert, die in zukünftigen Studien zur Klassifizierung genutzt werden können.For some years now, news sites around the world are increasingly confronted with abusive user comments in their respective comment sections and discussion forums. While these spaces were long seen as promising instruments of democratic participation, they now have a reputation as spaces full of insults and hate speech. Since this not only poses a threat to social cohesion but can also compromise the image of a news site, many platforms have taken measures to regulate the comments on their sites since then. Some have published community guidelines, hired moderation teams and implemented monitoring software. As an additional measure, many adapted the technological design and the features of their comment spaces to gain more control over the posted comments. This includes, for example, requiring commenters to register with the site, sorting of comment threads and various degrees of anonymization. Many authors refer to this technological design of comment spaces as "discourse architecture." The theoretical argument behind this term is that the way comment spaces are "built" influences how commenters behave within them. This perspective is particularly interesting from the point of view of journalism research, since the relationship between editorial staff and audience is manifested in such technological architectures. Several studies have analyzed and compared various discourse architectures in order to investigate possible effects on commenting behavior. However, there is still a lack of a systematic analysis in this field. Apart from individual case studies, there are no findings on the diversity of discourse architectures which provide information on the technical conditions of audience participation on the Internet. On the theoretical basis of the discourse architecture approach, this study investigates two research questions: How are the included discourse architectures designed (RQ1)? And what types of discourse architectures can we identify (RQ2)? In order to answer these questions, we conducted a standardized analysis of 361 German news sites, which produced three key findings. Firstly, with regard to RQ1, we found that 173 of these 361 news sites offer comments sections, whereas only 24 offer discussion forums. In contrast, almost all sites in the sample have an additional Facebook page. Al-though we have not checked whether these pages actually contain posts and comments, against this back-ground we can nevertheless assume that the discourse architecture of Facebook has become the most important technological infrastructure for commenting news articles in Germany. Acknowledging the low deliberative quality of user discussions on Facebook revealed by earlier studies, this would be quite problematic with regard to social integration. Secondly, the detailed analysis of the comment sections showed that most news sites do not exhaust the possibilities of using technical discourse architectures to gain more control over the discussions of users and users. Overall, the technological design of the comment sections is quite inclusive, not very restrictive and only weakly regulated. The most popular features are required registration, rating of comments, opprtunities to report comments and the restriction of comment sections to certain topics. Thirdly, with regard to RQ2, five distinct types of discourse architectures for comment sections could be identified within the sample. They differ in terms of their combinations of features and as well as in terms of their outreach. Additionally, we found a significant correlation between the outreach of the news sites and the number of features that strengthen editorial control over the comments

Hate and harm

From a psychological point of view, hate speech can be conceptualized as harmful intergroup communication. In contrast to other forms of incivility, hate speech is directed toward individuals because of their (perceived) social identity. This explains why the harm of hate speech can extend to entire social groups and societies. Hate speech therefore cannot be separated from pre-existing power structures and resource inequalities, as its harm is particularly severe when coping resources are already deprived. Psychological research on the perpetrators of hate speech links hate speech to a lack of empathy and the acceptance of, or even desire for social inequalities. In summary, hate speech jars the norms of democratic discourses by denying fellow humans basic respect and violating the democratic minimal consent of human equality. Overall, the chapter demonstrates the usefulness of a (social) psychological perspective on the harms of hate speech for both researchers and practitioner

Moderationsfaktoren: ein Ansatz zur Analyse von Selektionsentscheidungen im Community Management

Aggressive und diskriminierende Kommentare im Umfeld journalistischer Berichterstattung auf Nachrichtenseiten und in sozialen Medien gelten als Bedrohung für den gesellschaftlichen Zusammenhalt und Herausforderung für die verantwortlichen Redaktionen. Auf der Basis von 20 qualitativen Leitfadeninterviews mit Community Manager*innen untersucht dieser Beitrag, welche Moderationsstrategien im Umgang mit Hasskommentaren ergriffen werden und welche Faktoren diese Moderationsentscheidungen erklären können. Mit Rückgriff auf die Gatekeeping-Forschung werden die Ergebnisse zu einem Modell von Erklärungsfaktoren verdichtet, das diese 'Moderationsfaktoren' auf den Ebenen des Individuums, der Profession, der Organisation und der Gesellschaft anordnet.Aggressive and discriminatory comments posted on news websites and social media threaten social cohesion and pose challenges for a site‘s respective editorial staff. Based on 20 qualitative, guided interviews with community managers, this article is an early examination of the factors that influence moderation decisions and the moderation strategies which are used to address hate comments online. By referencing preexisting gatekeeping research, this study models the explanatory factors which, in turn, define the 'moderation factors' on the level of the individual, the norms and routines of the profession, the organization and society

Does dog-ownership influence seasonal patterns of neighbourhood-based walking among adults? A longitudinal study

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>In general dog-owners are more physically active than non-owners, however; it is not known whether dog-ownership can influence seasonal fluctuations in physical activity. This study examines whether dog-ownership influences summer and winter patterns of neighbourhood-based walking among adults living in Calgary, Canada.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>A cohort of adults, randomly sampled from the Calgary metropolitan area, completed postal surveys in winter and summer 2008. Both winter and summer versions of the survey included questions on dog-ownership, walking for recreation, and walking for transportation in residential neighbourhoods. <b>Participation </b>in neighbourhood-based walking was compared, among dog-owners and non-owners, and in summer and winter, using general linear modeling. <b>Stability </b>of participation in neighbourhood-based walking across summer and winter among dog-owners and non-owners was also assessed, using logistic regression.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>A total of 428 participants participated in the study, of whom 115 indicated owning dogs at the time of both surveys. Dog-owners reported more walking for recreation in their neighbourhoods than did non-owners, both in summer and in winter. Dog-owners were also more likely than non-owners to report participation in walking for recreation in their neighbourhoods, in summer as well as in winter. Dog-owners and non-owners did not differ in the amount of walking that they reported for transportation, either in summer or in winter.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>By acting as cues for physical activity, dogs may help their owners remain active across seasons. Policies and programs related to dog-ownership and dog-walking, such as dog-supportive housing and dog-supportive parks, may assist in enhancing population health by promoting physical activity.</p

Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor Associated Factor 6 Is Not Required for Atherogenesis in Mice and Does Not Associate with Atherosclerosis in Humans

BACKGROUND: Tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factors (TRAFs) are important signaling molecules for a variety of pro-atherogenic cytokines including CD40L, TNF alpha, and IL1beta. Several lines of evidence identified TRAF6 as a pro-inflammatory signaling molecule in vitro and we previously demonstrated overexpression of TRAF6 in human and Murine atherosclerotic plaques. This study investigated the role of TRAF6-deficiency in mice developing atherosclerosis, a chronic inflammatory disease. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Lethally irradiated low density lipoprotein receptor-deficient mice (TRAF6(+/+)/LDLR(-/-)) were reconstituted with TRAF6-deficient fetal liver cells (FLC) and consumed high cholesterol diet for 18 weeks to assess the relevance of TRAF6 in hematopoietic cells for atherogenesis. Additionally, TRAF6(+/-)/LDLR(-/-) mice received TRAF6-deficient FLC to gain insight into the role of TRAF6 deficiency in resident cells. Surprisingly, atherosclerotic lesion size did not differ between the three groups in both aortic roots and abdominal aortas. Similarly, no significant differences in plaque composition could be observed as assessed by immunohistochemistry for macrophages, lipids, smooth muscle cells, T-cells, and collagen. In accord, in a small clinical study TRAF6/GAPDH total blood RNA ratios did not differ between groups of patients with stable coronary heart disease (0.034+/-0.0021, N = 178), acute coronary heart disease (0.029+/-0.0027, N = 70), and those without coronary heart disease (0.032+/-0.0016, N = 77) as assessed by angiography. CONCLUSION: Our study demonstrates that TRAF6 is not required for atherogenesis in mice and does not associate with clinical disease in humans. These data suggest that pro- and anti-inflammatory features of TRAF6 signaling outweigh each other in the context of atherosclerosis

Cannabinoid Receptor 2 Signaling Does Not Modulate Atherogenesis in Mice

BACKGROUND:Strong evidence supports a protective role of the cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB(2)) in inflammation and atherosclerosis. However, direct proof of its involvement in lesion formation is lacking. Therefore, the present study aimed to characterize the role of the CB(2) receptor in Murine atherogenesis. METHODS AND FINDINGS:Low density lipoprotein receptor-deficient (LDLR(-/-)) mice subjected to intraperitoneal injections of the selective CB(2) receptor agonist JWH-133 or vehicle three times per week consumed high cholesterol diet (HCD) for 16 weeks. Surprisingly, intimal lesion size did not differ between both groups in sections of the aortic roots and arches, suggesting that CB(2) activation does not modulate atherogenesis in vivo. Plaque content of lipids, macrophages, smooth muscle cells, T cells, and collagen were also similar between both groups. Moreover, CB(2) (-/-)/LDLR(-/-) mice developed lesions of similar size containing more macrophages and lipids but similar amounts of smooth muscle cells and collagen fibers compared with CB(2) (+/+)/LDLR(-/-) controls. While JWH-133 treatment reduced intraperitoneal macrophage accumulation in thioglycollate-elicited peritonitis, neither genetic deficiency nor pharmacologic activation of the CB(2) receptor altered inflammatory cytokine expression in vivo or inflammatory cell adhesion in the flow chamber in vitro. CONCLUSION:Our study demonstrates that both activation and deletion of the CB(2) receptor do not relevantly modulate atherogenesis in mice. Our data do not challenge the multiple reports involving CB(2) in other inflammatory processes. However, in the context of atherosclerosis, CB(2) does not appear to be a suitable therapeutic target for reduction of the atherosclerotic plaque

CD40L Deficiency Attenuates Diet-Induced Adipose Tissue Inflammation by Impairing Immune Cell Accumulation and Production of Pathogenic IgG-Antibodies

BACKGROUND: Adipose tissue inflammation fuels the metabolic syndrome. We recently reported that CD40L--an established marker and mediator of cardiovascular disease--induces inflammatory cytokine production in adipose cells in vitro. Here, we tested the hypothesis that CD40L deficiency modulates adipose tissue inflammation in vivo. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: WT or CD40L(-/-) mice consumed a high fat diet (HFD) for 20 weeks. Inflammatory cell recruitment was impaired in mice lacking CD40L as shown by a decrease of adipose tissue macrophages, B-cells, and an increase in protective T-regulatory cells. Mechanistically, CD40L-deficient mice expressed significantly lower levels of the pro-inflammatory chemokine MCP-1 both, locally in adipose tissue and systemically in plasma. Moreover, levels of pro-inflammatory IgG-antibodies against oxidized lipids were reduced in CD40L(-/-) mice. Also, circulating low-density lipoproteins and insulin levels were lower in CD40L(-/-) mice. However, CD40L(-/-) mice consuming HFD were not protected from the onset of diet-induced obesity (DIO), insulin resistance, and hepatic steatosis, suggesting that CD40L selectively limits the inflammatory features of diet-induced obesity rather than its metabolic phenotype. Interestingly, CD40L(-/-) mice consuming a low fat diet (LFD) showed both, a favorable inflammatory and metabolic phenotype characterized by diminished weight gain, improved insulin tolerance, and attenuated plasma adipokine levels. CONCLUSION: We present the novel finding that CD40L deficiency limits adipose tissue inflammation in vivo. These findings identify CD40L as a potential mediator at the interface of cardiovascular and metabolic disease