Genomic analyses suggest strong population connectivity over large spatial scales of the commercially important baitworm, Australonuphis teres (Onuphidae)

Barriers to dispersal can disrupt gene flow between populations, resulting in genetically distinct populations. Although many marine animals have potential for long-distance dispersal via a planktonic stage, gene flow among populations separated by large geographic distances is not always evident. Polychaetes are ecologically important and have been used as biological surrogates for marine biodiversity. Some polychaete species are used as bait for recreational fisheries, with this demand supporting commercial fisheries for polychaetes to service the retail bait market. However, despite their ecological and economic importance, very little is known about the life history or population dynamics of polychaetes, and few studies have used genetic or genomic approaches to understand polychaete population connectivity. Here, we investigate the population structure of one commonly collected beachworm species used for bait on the eastern coast of Australia, namely, Australonuphis teres, by using genome-wide single-nucleotide polymorphism data. We sampled A. teres from hierarchical nested spatial scales along 900 km of the coast in New South Wales. We identified six genetic groups, but there was no clear geographic pattern of distribution. Our results suggest that there is considerable gene flow among the sampled populations. These high-resolution genomic data support the findings of previous studies, and we infer that oceanographic processes promote genetic exchange among polychaete populations in south-eastern Australia.This work was funded by the New South Wales Recreational Fishing Saltwater Trust, Project DPIS011 (to RCC). C. I. Fraser was supported by a Rutherford Discovery Fellowship from the Royal Society of New Zealand (UOO1803)

Batch-tagging blacklip abalone (Haliotis rubra) for identification of hatchery-reared individuals on natural coastal reefs in New South Wales, Australia

The identification of hatchery-reared larvae and juveniles is fundamental to assessing the success of their release when restocking. Hatchery-reared Haliotis rubra larvae and juveniles were successfully batch-tagged with distinct and persistent marks, enabling unambiguous differentiation from wild conspecifics when recaptured. Larvae were batch-tagged with the epifluorescent dye calcein. Experiments demonstrated that the batch-tagged larval shell was clearly visible in the spire of juvenile shells after 260 days. The recapture of batch-tagged and released larvae from natural reefs after 533 days at liberty also confirmed the persistence of this tag. A reliable and cost-effective method for batch-tagging juveniles was achieved with the use of an artificial diet that resulted in a distinctive blue-green coloration of the shell. This coloration differentiated released juveniles from wild conspecifics, was easily observed with the naked eye, and persisted on the spire of individuals for 777 days at liberty. These batch-tagging protocols allow large numbers of H. rubra larvae and juveniles to be distinctly tagged for long periods of time, enabling reliable estimation of survival after release and individual growth. It is likely that these techniques could also be applied to other abalone species

Stock enhancement of local populations of blacklip abalone (Haliotis rubra Leach) in New South Wales, Australia\ud

This thesis examines the release and long-term (>2 years) survival and growth of hatchery-reared larval and juvenile blacklip abalone (Haliotis rubra Leach), on natural coastal reefs in New South Wales (NSW), Australia. Abalone are demersal, relatively sedentary, marine molluscs, that support important commercial, recreational and indigenous fisheries in numerous locations around the world. This thesis was developed in response to substantial depletions of local populations of H. rubra along >250 km of the NSW coast and the ineffectiveness of traditional fisheries management strategies to arrest these declines. These failures stem from demographic processes, common to haliotids, that limit their ability to re-establish populations that have been subject to substantial decline. A series of laboratory and field experiments were designed and conducted to examine a range of factors, and their interactions, that can have substantial affects on the success of releasing hatchery-reared H. rubra to natural reefs. The principal finding was that successful stock enhancement of local populations can be achieved, and the greatest value of a stock enhancement strategy is likely to be gained where the primary management objective is rebuilding depleted natural populations. Methodology, baseline targets and other recommendations are provided that would aid implementation of a stock enhancement management strategy to complement current traditional fisheries management approaches. The objectives of the research in this thesis were to: 1) investigate factors affecting the settlement, metamorphosis and early growth of H. rubra larvae; 2) batch-tag larvae and juveniles to enable their identification when recaptured; 3) develop and test methods for the successful release of larvae and juveniles; 4) develop a monitoring strategy to estimate the abundance of released abalone through time; 5) quantify long-term survival and growth to provide minimum targets for stock enhancement; 6) determine the impact of releasing juveniles on wild populations; 7) provide a bio-economic analysis and; 8) provide recommendations for the implementation of a stock enhancement management strategy for H. rubra in NSW.\ud \ud The release of larvae to natural reefs requires them to be exposed to a number of handling and transport processes. In laboratory experiments conducted in this thesis, greater proportions (commonly >75%) of larvae settled, metamorphosed and grew to larger sizes when exposed to settlement substrata for longer periods of time (>24 hours). There was a lower settlement response in the presence of water flow, although the addition of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) increased the proportion of larvae that settled within short periods of time, i.e. 25 - 100% more in ≤60 sec.. Larvae were resistant to simulated handling and transport processes, indicating their utility for stock enhancement.\ud \ud The tagging of larvae and juveniles is fundamental to assessing the success of an enhancement program. Hatchery-reared H. rubra larvae and juveniles were successfully batch-tagged. The tagging procedures provided an indelible mark, enabling the identification of individuals once recaptured, and unambiguous differentiation from wild conspecifics. Successful batch-tagging was also critical for the assessment of subsequent field experiments undertaken in this thesis. Larvae were batch-tagged with the epi-fluorescent dye, calcein. Laboratory experiments demonstrated that the tagged larval shell was clearly visible in the spire of juvenile shells after >250 days. The recapture of tagged and released larvae from natural reefs, >500 days after release, confirmed the persistence of this tag. A reliable and cost-effective method for batch-tagging juveniles was through the use of a commercial diet that resulted in the distinctive blue-green colouration of the shell. The presence of this blue-green colouration differentiated released juveniles from those in naturally occurring populations, could be observed with the naked eye, without the need for a UV light source, and persisted on the spire of individuals for >900 days.\ud \ud Methods of releasing H. rubra larvae and juveniles were developed and tested in a series of laboratory and field experiments. A deployment pump that included a pressurised container and hose, was used to successfully release larvae to natural reefs. The addition of GABA and refrigeration during simulated transport, and the stage of release from the deployment pump, significantly affected the number of larvae delivered through the pump. The release of larvae to physical shelters on the reef significantly increased the numbers that settled, and their survivorship. There was added complexity in the process of releasing juveniles than with that for larvae. The use of a deployment device (PVC tube, ~300 x 125 x 65 mm), that was securely placed onto the substratum, was integral to the successful release of juveniles. Use of these devices in a standard release protocol ensured the limited physical handling of juveniles and provided a simple, cost effective and efficient method for the release of large numbers to areas of natural reef.\ud \ud A monitoring strategy was developed and tested to enable accurate estimates of the abundance and therefore survival of released H. rubra ,of a variety of life history stages, to be measured. The abundance of H. rubra juveniles is difficult to accurately assess on natural reef because of their cryptic distribution among complex topography in rocky habitat. As a consequence, the precision and relative accuracy of methods to sample released abalone was examined in a series of field experiments, and included the dispersal of juveniles from deployment devices. The most accurate and precise estimates of the number of H. rubra surviving were detected using methods that disturbed the habitat, i.e. turning over boulders, within a release location, and multiple sampling approaches were required to measure the abundance of abalone of different sizes. For larvae, the collection of boulders provided more accurate estimates of abundance than samples taken using a venturi-lift. For juveniles, thorough searching of boulder substratum and more replicates provided more accurate estimates of abundance. Further, stratified sampling among habitats after natural disturbance revealed greater densities of H. rubra in 'solid habitat', and spatially stratified sampling indicated juveniles can disperse up to 10 m from their release point in <8 days.\ud \ud The success of a stock enhancement strategy is determined by the net value it adds to a population. This necessitates estimates of the long-term survival and growth of released individuals, the impact released individuals have on the extant population, and the bio-economic feasibility of an enhancement strategy. Rates of survival and growth varied substantially among releases and locations. However, the long-term survival of batch-tagged and released larvae and juveniles demonstrated that local populations of abalone could be enhanced with significantly greater numbers of juveniles surviving at multiple release locations than at control locations after >2 years. The release of juveniles had no detectable affect on the mean total number of wild conspecifics or wild recruits over these time scales. Long-term survival of released larvae and juveniles was generally low (<0.03%, range: 0 - 0.03% and; <4%, range: 0 - 10%, respectively). However, at three of the twelve juvenile release locations it exceeded that expected for wild abalone (range: 4 - 10%). Growth rates of released juveniles (range: 18 - 47 mm.yr-1) indicated that they would generally reach sexual maturity within 2 - 3 years and exceed the minimum legal length within 4.5 years. A deterministic, bio-economic model was used to analyse the net present value (NPV) of a stock enhancement strategy for H. rubra in NSW, against an alternate investment return of 10% p.a.. Positive NPV occurred where long-term survival was >4% and where growth rates were higher than average rates reported in this research, or beach price exceeded $AUD 34.kg-1. \ud \ud Low rates of long-term survival of larvae suggests their large-scale release is unlikely to provide a viable stand alone option to successfully enhance local populations of H. rubra. The survival and growth of released juveniles, to replicate locations, demonstrated that depleted local populations of H. rubra in NSW can be enhanced, and that a stock enhancement program can complement the NSW Abalone Fishery management strategy. The success of any large-scale stock enhancement program will be determined by the definition of its objectives. Outcomes from this thesis suggest that the greatest value of a stock enhancement strategy will be gained where its primary objective is to rebuild depleted populations, rather than optimise commercial yield through the release of individuals to overcome recruitment limitation or to harvest released individuals at a larger size. The decision to implement such a program, including explicit description of its primary objective, is required to be made among well-informed representatives of all stakeholders. Further, this decision needs to be made with a thorough understanding of the current biological structure of the populations, including the nature of population depletions, the economic status of the fishery and in light of current, complementary and alternative management arrangements that may provide comparative increases in net value

Restocking depleted wild stocks—long-term survival and impact of released blacklip abalone (Haliotis rubra) on depleted wild populations in New South\ud Wales, Australia

The potential for restocking with hatchery organisms as a tool to rebuild depleted populations of blacklip abalone (Haliotis rubra) was investigated through replicated, control-impact studies in New South Wales, Australia. Long-term survival (>2 years) of hatchery-reared and released abalone, their impact on wild abalone abundance, and the effect of diffuse versus concentrated release was investigated on natural reefs. Long-term survival of released hatchery abalone varied between releases but averaged about that expected for wild abalone. There was no significant effect of released juveniles on the persistence or recruitment of wild abalone. Significantly greater numbers of all (released and wild) abalone persisted at release locations through time, while the total number of wild abalone increased significantly through time at release and control locations. There was no significant difference in long-term survival of abalone released in clusters of high density (2–4%) or in a diffuse or concentrated array (0–9%). These results show that restocking can supplement natural rebuilding processes of depleted wild abalone populations in New South Wales, Australia

Aging of the sea urchin Centrostephanus rodgersii using demi-pyramid microstructure

We investigate a novel aging method that utilizes parallel ridges and grooves on the surface of demi-pyramids of the sea urchin Centrostephanus rodgersii. Analysis of marginal increments from sea urchins tagged with oxytetracycline confirmed that ridges form in the mid to late Austral spring, as seawater begins to warm. After known periods of up to three years, counts of ridges from tagged sea urchins showed that the ridges were formed annually. Differences between observed and expected counts of ridges were mostly related to readers’ inability to distinguish adjacent ridges at the growing margin of the demi-pyramid. This resulted in a higher probability of underestimating age for individuals ≥ 6 yr. Counts of the ridges on the same demi-pyramid by the same reader, and comparisons among different readers, provided estimates of random error and bias. Estimates of aging error and bias in distinguishing ridges were modeled and used to estimate ‘true’ age and age structure. Maximum estimated age was 27 yr but most individuals were estimated to be 10–15 yr. We discuss the relevance of our findings to the fishery and the broader applicability of our method to correct ages estimated from other hard parts in marine species

Evidence that blood flukes (Trematoda: Aporocotylidae) of chondrichthyans infect bivalves as intermediate hosts: indications of anancient diversification of the Schistosomatoidea.

Blood flukes (Aporocotylidae) of actinopterygians (bony fishes) have been shown to infect freshwater gastropods and marine polychaetes as intermediate hosts. However, no life cycle is known for any aporocotylid of chondrichthyans (cartilaginous fishes) and no adult aporocotylid has been linked to a cercaria infecting a bivalve. Here we report two novel infections that fill these gaps. Cercariae consistent with the family Aporocotylidae were found developing in sporocysts in the gonad of the surf pipi, Donax deltoides Lamarck, 1818 (Bivalvia: Donacidae), from Stockton Beach, central New South Wales, Australia. Adult aporocotylids were found in the heart of the giant shovelnose ray, Glaucostegus typus (Anonymous [Bennett], 1830), from Moreton Bay, southeastern Queensland, Australia. Phylogenetic analyses of the 28S rDNA region generated from the new specimens resulted in phylograms in which the two parasites form a strongly supported clade with Chimaerohemecus trondheimensis van der Land, 1967, the only aporocotylid known from a holocephalan and the only other chondrichthyan-infecting aporocotylid for which sequence data are available. Most marine aporocotylids of actinopterygians also form a strongly supported clade. These findings lead us to hypothesise that the aporocotylids of chondrichthyans are distinct from all other blood flukes in infecting bivalves as intermediate hosts. Putative cophyly between three major blood fluke clades and both definitive and intermediate host groups is consistent with diversification of the Schistosomatoidea over 400 million years ago. (C) 2017 Australian Society for Parasitology. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved

Toward sustainable harvest strategies for marine fisheries that include recreational fishing

Recreational fishing (RF) is a large yet undervalued component of fisheries globally. While progress has been made in monitoring, assessing, and managing the sector in isolation, integration of RF into the management of multi-sector fisheries has been limited, particularly relative to the commercial sector. This marginalises recreational fishers and reduces the likelihood of achieving the sector's objectives and, more broadly, achieving fisheries sustainability. We examined the nature and extent of RF inclusion in harvest strategies (HSs) for marine fisheries across 15 regions in 11 nations to define the gap in inclusion that has developed between sectors. We focused on high-income nations with a high level of RF governance and used a questionnaire to elicit expert knowledge on HSs due to the paucity of published documents. In total, 339 HSs were considered. We found that RF inclusion in HSs was more similar to the small-scale sector (i.e., artisanal, cultural, or subsistence) than the commercial sector, with explicit operational objectives, data collection, performance indicators, reference points, and management controls lacking in many regions. Where specified, RF objectives focused on sustainability, economic value and catch allocation rather than directly relating to the recreational fishing experience. Conflicts with other sectors included competition with the commercial sector for limited resources, highlighting the importance of equitable resource allocation policies alongside HSs. We propose that RF be explicitly incorporated into HSs to ensure fisheries are ecologically, economically, and socially sustainable, and we recommend that fisheries organisations urgently review HSs for marine fisheries with a recreational component to close the harvest strategy gap among sectors