The global impact of Wolbachia on mitochondrial diversity and evolution

International audienceThe spread of maternally inherited microorganisms, such as Wolbachia bacteria , can induce indirect selective sweeps on host mitochondria, to which they are linked within the cytoplasm. The resulting reduction in effective population size might lead to smaller mitochondrial diversity and reduced efficiency of natural selection. While documented in several host species, it is currently unclear if such a scenario is common enough to globally impact the diversity and evolution of mitochondria in Wolbachia-infected lineages. Here, we address this question using a mapping of Wolbachia acquisition/ex-tinction events on a large mitochondrial DNA tree, including over 1000 species. Our analyses indicate that on a large phylogenetic scale, other sources of variation, such as mutation rates, tend to hide the effects of Wolbachia. However, paired comparisons between closely related infected and unin-fected taxa reveal that Wolbachia is associated with a twofold reduction in silent mitochondrial polymorphism, and a 13% increase in nonsynonymous substitution rates. These findings validate the conjecture that the widespread distribution of Wolbachia infections throughout arthropods impacts the effective population size of mitochondria. These effects might in part explain the disconnection between genetic diversity and demographic population size in mitochondria, and also fuel red-queen-like cytonuclear co-evolution through the fixation of deleterious mitochondrial alleles

Re-entrance of the metallic conductance in a mesoscopic proximity superconductor

We present an experimental study of the diffusive transport in a normal metal near a superconducting interface, showing the re-entrance of the metallic conductance at very low temperature. This new mesoscopic regime comes in when the thermal coherence length of the electron pairs exceeds the sample size. This re-entrance is suppressed by a bias voltage given by the Thouless energy and can be strongly enhanced by an Aharonov Bohm flux. Experimental results are well described by the linearized quasiclassical theory.Comment: improved version submitted to Phys. Rev. lett., 4 pages, 5 included epsf figure

Superconducting proximity effect in a mesoscopic ferromagnetic wire

We present an experimental study of the transport properties of a ferromagnetic metallic wire (Co) in metallic contact with a superconductor (Al). As the temperature is decreased below the Al superconducting transition, the Co resistance exhibits a significant dependence on both temperature and voltage. The differential resistance data show that the decay length for the proximity effect is much larger than we would simply expect from the exchange field of the ferromagnet.Comment: 4 pages, 6 included epsf figures, published version with small change

The evolution of sex ratio distorter suppression affects a 25 cM genomic region in the butterfly Hypolimnas bolina

Open Access ArticleSymbionts that distort their host's sex ratio by favouring the production and survival of females are common in arthropods. Their presence produces intense Fisherian selection to return the sex ratio to parity, typified by the rapid spread of host 'suppressor' loci that restore male survival/development. In this study, we investigated the genomic impact of a selective event of this kind in the butterfly Hypolimnas bolina. Through linkage mapping, we first identified a genomic region that was necessary for males to survive Wolbachia-induced male-killing. We then investigated the genomic impact of the rapid spread of suppression, which converted the Samoan population of this butterfly from a 100:1 female-biased sex ratio in 2001 to a 1:1 sex ratio by 2006. Models of this process revealed the potential for a chromosome-wide effect. To measure the impact of this episode of selection directly, the pattern of genetic variation before and after the spread of suppression was compared. Changes in allele frequencies were observed over a 25 cM region surrounding the suppressor locus, with a reduction in overall diversity observed at loci that co-segregate with the suppressor. These changes exceeded those expected from drift and occurred alongside the generation of linkage disequilibrium. The presence of novel allelic variants in 2006 suggests that the suppressor was likely to have been introduced via immigration rather than through de novo mutation. In addition, further sampling in 2010 indicated that many of the introduced variants were lost or had declined in frequency since 2006. We hypothesize that this loss may have resulted from a period of purifying selection, removing deleterious material that introgressed during the initial sweep. Our observations of the impact of suppression of sex ratio distorting activity reveal a very wide genomic imprint, reflecting its status as one of the strongest selective forces in nature.Natural Environment Research Council (NERC

reentrance effect in normal-metal/superconducting hybrid loops

We have measured the transport properties of two mesoscopic hybrid loops composed of a normal-metal arm and a superconducting arm. The samples differed in the transmittance of the normal/superconducting interfaces. While the low transmittance sample showed monotonic behavior in the low temperature resistance, magnetoresistance and differential resistance, the high transmittance sample showed reentrant behavior in all three measurements. This reentrant behavior is due to coherent Andreev reflection at the normal/superconducting interfaces. We compare the reentrance effect for the three different measurements and discuss the results based on the theory of quasiclassical Green's functions

Subgap anomaly and above-energy-gap structure in chains of diffusive SNS junctions

We present the results of low-temperature transport measurements on chains of superconductor--normal-constriction--superconductor (SNS) junctions fabricated on the basis of superconducting PtSi film. A comparative study of the properties of the chains, consisting of 3 and 20 SNS junctions in series, and single SNS junctions reveals essential distinctions in the behavior of the current-voltage characteristics of the systems: (i) the gradual decrease of the effective suppression voltage for the excess conductivity observed at zero bias as the quantity of the SNS junctions increases, (ii) a rich fine structure on the dependences dV/dI-V at dc bias voltages higher than the superconducting gap and corresponding to some multiples of 2\Delta/e. A model to explain this above-energy-gap structure based on energy relaxation of electron via Cooper-pair-breaking in superconducting island connecting normal metal electrods is proposed.Comment: RevTex, 5 pages, 4 figure

A New Model and Method for Understanding Wolbachia-Induced Cytoplasmic Incompatibility

Wolbachia are intracellular bacteria transmitted almost exclusively vertically through eggs. In response to this mode of transmission, Wolbachia strategically manipulate their insect hosts' reproduction. In the most common manipulation type, cytoplasmic incompatibility, infected males can only mate with infected females, but infected females can mate with all males. The mechanism of cytoplasmic incompatibility is unknown; theoretical and empirical findings need to converge to broaden our understanding of this phenomenon. For this purpose, two prominent models have been proposed: the mistiming-model and the lock-key-model. The former states that Wolbachia manipulate sperm of infected males to induce a fatal delay of the male pronucleus during the first embryonic division, but that the bacteria can compensate the delay by slowing down mitosis in fertilized eggs. The latter states that Wolbachia deposit damaging “locks” on sperm DNA of infected males, but can also provide matching “keys” in infected eggs to undo the damage. The lock-key-model, however, needs to assume a large number of locks and keys to explain all existing incompatibility patterns. The mistiming-model requires fewer assumptions but has been contradicted by empirical results. We therefore expand the mistiming-model by one quantitative dimension to create the new, so-called goalkeeper-model. Using a method based on formal logic, we show that both lock-key- and goalkeeper-model are consistent with existing data. Compared to the lock-key-model, however, the goalkeeper-model assumes only two factors and provides an idea of the evolutionary emergence of cytoplasmic incompatibility. Available cytological evidence suggests that the hypothesized second factor of the goalkeeper-model may indeed exist. Finally, we suggest empirical tests that would allow to distinguish between the models. Generalizing our results might prove interesting for the study of the mechanism and evolution of other host-parasite interactions

Proximity Induced Josephson-Quasiparticle Process in a Single Electron Transistor

We have performed the first experiments in a superconductor - normal metal - superconductor single electron transistor in which there is an extra superconducting strip partially overlapping the normal metal island in good metal-to-metal contact. Superconducting proximity effect gives rise to current peaks at voltages below the quasiparticle threshold. We interpret these peaks in terms of the Josephson-quasiparticle process and discuss their connection with the proximity induced energy gap in the normal metal island.Comment: 4 pages + 4 figure

Intense Transpositional Activity of Insertion Sequences in an Ancient Obligate Endosymbiont

The streamlined genomes of ancient obligate endosymbionts generally lack transposable elements, such as insertion sequences (IS). Yet, the genome of Wolbachia, one of the most abundant bacterial endosymbionts on Earth, is littered with IS. Such a paradox raises the question as to why there are so many ISs in the genome of this ancient endosymbiont. To address this question, we investigated IS transpositional activity in the unculturable Wolbachia by tracking the evolutionary dynamics and history of ISWpi1 elements. We show that 1) ISWpi1 is widespread in Wolbachia, being present in at least 55% of the 40 sampled strains, 2) ISWpi1 copies exhibit virtually identical nucleotide sequences both within and among Wolbachia genomes and possess an intact transposase gene, 3) individual ISWpi1 copies are differentially inserted among Wolbachia genomes, and 4) ISWpi1 occurs at variable copy numbers among Wolbachia genomes. Collectively, our results provide compelling evidence for intense ISWpi1 transpositional activity and frequent ISWpi1 horizontal transmission among strains during recent Wolbachia evolution. Thus, the genomes of ancient obligate endosymbionts can carry high loads of functional and transpositionally active transposable elements. Our results also indicate that Wolbachia genomes have experienced multiple and temporally distinct ISWpi1 invasions during their evolutionary history. Such recurrent exposition to new IS invasions may explain, at least partly, the unusually high density of transposable elements found in the genomes of Wolbachia endosymbionts

Conductance fluctuations in mesoscopic normal-metal/superconductor samples

We study the magnetoconductance fluctuations of mesoscopic normal-metal/superconductor (NS) samples consisting of a gold-wire in contact with a niobium film. The magnetic field strength is varied over a wide range, including values that are larger than the upper critical field B_c2 of niobium. In agreement with recent theoretical predictions we find that in the NS sample the rms of the conductance fluctuations (CF) is by a factor of 2.8 +/- 0.4 larger than in the high field regime where the entire system is driven normal conducting. Further characteristics of the CF are discussed.Comment: 4 pages, REVTEX, 3 eps-figures included. To be published in Phys. Rev. Lett.. Changes: one misplaced figure correcte