Factors determining the degree of commercialization of smallholder agriculture: the case of potato growers in Kombolcha District, East Hararghe, Ethiopia

Potato is one of the most valuable and widely consumed crops in the world in general and in Ethiopia in particular. Similarly, in Kombolcha District, it is among the most important crops grown for sale and consumption by smallholder farmers. Commercializing such crops does have multiple benefits for the smallholder farmers of the district as the district has great potential for commercial vegetable production and there is a growing market opportunity for the products. However, potato growing smallholders in the district are producing at a subsistence level and their participation in the market (degree of commercialization) is not only low but also varies across the district. Hence, this study was initiated to identify factors determining the extent of market participation (degree of commercialization) of potato growers. Five potato growing Peasant Associations (PAs) were selected purposively from a total of 10 Peasant Associations and subsequently 133 respondents were selected using simple random sampling from the sampling frame i.e. potato growers. A formal survey was conducted to collect data, which was supported by focus group discussions and key informant interviews. Both descriptive statistics and Robust OLS model were employed to analyze quantitative 1 Lecturer, Department of Rural Development and Agricultural Extension, Haramaya University, Ethiopia 2 Postdoctoral fellow, International Livestock Research Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 3 Professor, Department of Rural Development and Agricultural Extension, Haramaya University, Ethiopia JAD 2 (1) 2011 Factors Determining the Degree of Commercialization 19 data; whereas qualitative data were analyzed using narrations and interpretations. The OLS results indicated that farm size allocated to potato, access to irrigation and access to market information were found to be significant in affecting extent of market participation (degree of commercialization) at 1 % probability level. Hence, organizing farmers into groups in order to have better access to irrigation, providing market information through networking and institutions and improving extension service and availing improved varieties, overall, modernizing potato production are therefore crucial in enhancing the extent of market participation (the degree of commercialization)

Semi-Dwarf Tef Lines for High Seed Yield and Lodging Tolerance in Central Ethiopia

Tef [ Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter] is the major cereal crop in the Horn of Africa, especially in Ethiopia where it is a staple food for over 60% of its 90 million population. The crop performs better than other cereal crops under extreme environmental conditions. The grain of tef is not only nutritious but also gluten-free, the cause for celiac disease, which affects humans world wide. The objective of this study was to evaluate the morpho-agronomic performance of newly developed semi-dwarf tef genotypes for grain yield and yield related agronomic traits under diverse environmental conditions. Twenty-four tef lines were evaluated, along with one local and three standard checks, at three locations in the Central Ethiopia. The mean squares due to genotypes, locations and genotype by location interactions were highly significant (P<0.01) for all the studied traits. Three genotypes, namely RIL- 91, RIL-244 and RIL-11, gave the highest seed yield, ranging between 4.4 to 4.7 t ha-1, compared to the popular and widely cultivated tef variety called Quncho which gave 4.2 t ha-1. Genotypic and phenotypic coefficients of variations ranged from 0.002 to 173.9% and from 0.004 to 255.9%, respectively. The highest genetic advance (20.2 cm) and heritability estimates (86.7%) were obtained for plant height indicating that selection for this trait can be made easily. Grain yield showed significant and positive genotypic association with plant height, whole culm and second culm internode length, second culm internode diameter, number of spikelet per panicle and shoot biomass yield. Cluster analysis grouped the genotypes into six distinct classes. The first five principal components with eigenvalues greater than one accounted for 85% of the total variation. Generally, this study identified tef genotypes with better grain yield and reasonable lodging tolerance for further evaluation and eventual release to the farming communities.Tef [ Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter] est une\ua0culture majeure de c\ue9r\ue9ale dans la corne de l\u2019Afrique, particuli\ue8rement en Ethiopie o\uf9 elle est un aliment de base pour plus de 60% de son 90\ua0million de population. La culture performe mieux que d\u2019autres cultures c\ue9r\ue9ali\ue8res dans des conditions environnementales extr\ueames. Les grains du tef ne sont pas seulement nutritifs mais aussi ne contiennent pas de gluten, la cause des maladies des c\ue9r\ue9ales, qui affectent les hommes dans le monde. L\u2019objectif de cette \ue9tude \ue9tait d\u2019\ue9valuer la performance morpho-agronomique des g\ue9notypes semi-nain de tef nouvellement d\ue9velopp\ue9s pour le rendement en grain et les composantes du rendement sous diverses conditions environnementales. Vingt-quatre lign\ue9es de tef \ue9taient \ue9valu\ue9es, ensemble avec un local et trois contr\uf4les standards, dans trois locations dans la r\ue9gion centrale de l\u2019Ethiopie. Les carr\ue9es moyens dus aux g\ue9notypes, locations et aux interactions entre le g\ue9notype et l\u2019environnement \ue9taient hautement significatifs (P<0.01) pour tous les traits \ue9tudi\ue9s. Trois g\ue9notypes, nomm\ue9s RIL-91, RIL-244 and RIL-11, ont donn\ue9 les rendements les plus \ue9lev\ue9s en grain variant de 4,4 \ue0 4,7 t ha-1, compar\ue9s \ue0 la vari\ue9t\ue9 de tef populaire et largement cultiv\ue9e appel\ue9e Ounho qui a donn\ue9 4,2 t ha-1. Les coefficients de variation g\ue9notypique et ph\ue9notypique ont vari\ue9 de 0,002 \ue0 173,9% et de 0,004 \ue0 255,9%, respectivement. La plus grande avanc\ue9e g\ue9notypique (20,2 cm) et les estimations d\u2019h\ue9ritabilit\ue9 (86,7%) \ue9taient obtenues pour la taille de la plante montrant que la s\ue9lection pour ce trait peut \ueatre faite plus t\uf4t. Le rendement en grain a montr\ue9 une association significative et positive avec la taille de la plante, la longueur de l\u2019entre-n\u153ud au niveau de la canne int\ue9grale et la seconde canne, le diam\ue8tre de la seconde canne de l\u2019entre-n\u153ud, le nombre d\u2019\ue9pillet par panicule et le rendement en biomasse de la tige. L\u2019analyse en class a group\ue9 les g\ue9notypes en six classes distinctes. Les cinq premi\ue8res composantes principales avec des valeurs propres sup\ue9rieures \ue0 un ont pris en compte 85% de la variation totale. En g\ue9n\ue9rale, cette \ue9tude a identifi\ue9 des g\ue9notypes de tef avec des meilleurs rendements en grains et de tol\ue9rance raisonnable \ue0 la verse pour davantage \ue9valuation et \ue9ventuelle lib\ue9ration aux communaut\ue9s paysannes

Seasonal variations in household food insecurity and dietary diversity and their association with maternal and child nutritional status in rural Ethiopia

Food availability and access are strongly affected by seasonality in rural households in Ethiopia. However, relationships between household food insecurity indicators and dietary diversity and nutritional status of reproductive age mothers and their young children are unclear. A longitudinal study was conducted among 800 farming households in lowland and midland agro-ecological zones of rural Ethiopia in pre and post-harvest seasons. A structured interview, which included measures of three food access indicators − household food insecurity access scale (HFIAS), household dietary diversity score (HDDS) and household food consumption score (HFCS) − was conducted. Additionally, a subset of 183 households was selected for assessment of indicators of nutritional status including maternal and child dietary diversity and anthropometric measurements for children 6–23 months of age. Magnitudes of household food insecurity indices were high by international standards, particularly during the lean season (pre-harvest). Using correlation, Chi square and multivariable regression models, HFCS in both seasons was related to maternal body mass index and haemoglobin, and weight-for-length of their children. HDDS was associated in the post-harvest season with haemoglobin level of the mothers, and weight-for-length of their children. HFCS was a better predictor of nutritional status of mothers and children in both the food surplus and lean seasons, while HDDS was a better predictor of maternal and child nutritional status post-harvest. It is recommended that nutritional interventions should therefore focus on household food insecurity as well as targeting the individual nutritional status of mothers and children

Epidemiology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis lineages and strain clustering within urban and peri-urban settings in Ethiopia

Background Previous work has shown differential predominance of certain Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tb) lineages and sub-lineages among different human populations in diverse geographic regions of Ethiopia. Nevertheless, how strain diversity is evolving under the ongoing rapid socio-economic and environmental changes is poorly understood. The present study investigated factors associated with M. tb lineage predominance and rate of strain clustering within urban and peri-urban settings in Ethiopia. Methods Pulmonary Tuberculosis (PTB) and Cervical tuberculous lymphadenitis (TBLN) patients who visited selected health facilities were recruited in the years of 2016 and 2017. A total of 258 M. tb isolates identified from 163 sputa and 95 fine-needle aspirates (FNA) were characterized by spoligotyping and compared with international M.tb spoligotyping patterns registered at the SITVIT2 databases. The molecular data were linked with clinical and demographic data of the patients for further statistical analysis. Results From a total of 258 M. tb isolates, 84 distinct spoligotype patterns that included 58 known Shared International Type (SIT) patterns and 26 new or orphan patterns were identified. The majority of strains belonged to two major M. tb lineages, L3 (35.7%) and L4 (61.6%). The observed high percentage of isolates with shared patterns (n = 200/258) suggested a substantial rate of overall clustering (77.5%). After adjusting for the effect of geographical variations, clustering rate was significantly lower among individuals co-infected with HIV and other concomitant chronic disease. Compared to L4, the adjusted odds ratio and 95% confidence interval (AOR; 95% CI) indicated that infections with L3 M. tb strains were more likely to be associated with TBLN [3.47 (1.45, 8.29)] and TB-HIV co-infection [2.84 (1.61, 5.55)]. Conclusion Despite the observed difference in strain diversity and geographical distribution of M. tb lineages, compared to earlier studies in Ethiopia, the overall rate of strain clustering suggests higher transmission and warrant more detailed investigations into the molecular epidemiology of TB and related factors

Technology generation to dissemination:lessons learned from the tef improvement project

Indigenous crops also known as orphan crops are key contributors to food security, which is becoming increasingly vulnerable with the current trend of population growth and climate change. They have the major advantage that they fit well into the general socio-economic and ecological context of developing world agriculture. However, most indigenous crops did not benefit from the Green Revolution, which dramatically increased the yield of major crops such as wheat and rice. Here, we describe the Tef Improvement Project, which employs both conventional- and molecular-breeding techniques to improve tef\u2014an orphan crop important to the food security in the Horn of Africa, a region of the world with recurring devastating famines. We have established an efficient pipeline to bring improved tef lines from the laboratory to the farmers of Ethiopia. Of critical importance to the long-term success of this project is the cooperation among participants in Ethiopia and Switzerland, including donors, policy makers, research institutions, and farmers. Together, European and African scientists have developed a pipeline using breeding and genomic tools to improve the orphan crop tef and bring new cultivars to the farmers in Ethiopia. We highlight a new variety, Tesfa, developed in this pipeline and possessing a novel and desirable combination of traits. Tesfa\u2019s recent approval for release illustrates the success of the project and marks a milestone as it is the first variety (of many in the pipeline) to be released

Serological evidence for a decline in malaria transmission following major scale-up of control efforts in a setting selected for Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum malaria elimination in Babile district, Oromia, Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Following successful malaria control during the last decade, Ethiopia instituted a stepwise malaria elimination strategy in selected low-transmission areas. METHODS: Cross-sectional surveys were conducted in Babile district, Oromia, Ethiopia from July to November 2017 to evaluate malaria infection status using microscopy and nested polymerase chain reaction (nPCR) and serological markers of exposure targeting Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax apical membrane antigen-1 (AMA-1). RESULTS: Parasite prevalence was 1.2% (14/1135) and 5.1% (58/1143) for P. falciparum and 0.4% (5/1135) and 3.6% (41/1143) for P. vivax by microscopy and nPCR, respectively. Antibody prevalence was associated with current infection by nPCR for both P. falciparum (p<0.001) and P. vivax (p=0.014) and showed an age-dependent increase (p<0.001, for both species). Seroconversion curves indicated a decline in malaria exposure 15 y prior to sampling for P. falciparum and 11.5 y prior to sampling for P. vivax, broadly following malaria incidence data from district health offices, with higher antibody titres in adults than children for both species. CONCLUSIONS: Malaria transmission declined substantially in the region with continuing heterogeneous but measurable local transmission, arguing in favour of continued and tailored control efforts to accelerate the progress towards elimination efforts

Network analysis of dairy cattle movement and associations with bovine tuberculosis spread and control in emerging dairy belts of Ethiopia

Background: Dairy cattle movement could be a major risk factor for the spread of bovine tuberculosis (BTB) in emerging dairy belts of Ethiopia. Dairy cattle may be moved between farms over long distances, and hence understanding the route and frequency of the movements is essential to establish the pattern of spread of BTB between farms, which could ultimately help to inform policy makers to design cost effective control strategies. The objective of this study was, therefore, to investigate the network structure of dairy cattle movement and its influence on the transmission and prevalence of BTB in three emerging areas among the Ethiopian dairy belts, namely the cities of Hawassa, Gondar and Mekelle. Methods: A questionnaire survey was conducted in 278 farms to collect data on the pattern of dairy cattle movement for the last 5 years (September 2013 to August 2018). Visualization of the network structure and analysis of the relationship between the network patterns and the prevalence of BTB in these regions were made using social network analysis. Results: The cattle movement network structure display both scale free and small world properties implying local clustering with fewer farms being highly connected, at higher risk of infection, with the potential to act as super spreaders of BTB if infected. Farms having a history of cattle movements onto the herds were more likely to be affected by BTB (OR: 2.2) compared to farms not having a link history. Euclidean distance between farms and the batch size of animals moved on were positively correlated with prevalence of BTB. On the other hand, farms having one or more outgoing cattle showed a decrease on the likelihood of BTB infection (OR = 0.57) compared to farms which maintained their cattle. Conclusion: This study showed that the patterns of cattle movement and size of animal moved between farms contributed to the potential for BTB transmission. The few farms with the bulk of transmission potential could be efficiently targeted by control measures aimed at reducing the spread of BTB. The network structure described can also provide the starting point to build and estimate dynamic transmission models for BTB, and other infectious disease

Prevalence of bovine tuberculosis and its associated risk factors in the emerging dairy belts of regional cities in Ethiopia

Bovine tuberculosis (BTB) has become an economically important disease in dairy herds found in and around Addis Ababa City and is emerging in regional cities like Gondar, Hawassa and Mekelle because of the establishment of dairy farms in the milk sheds of these cities. A cross-sectional study to estimate the prevalence of BTB and identify associated risk factors was conducted between February 2016 and March 2017. A total of 174 herds comprising of 2,754 dairy cattle in the cities of Gondar, Hawassa and Mekelle were tested using the Single Intradermal Comparative Cervical Tuberculin (SICCT) test. Data on herd structure, animal origin, body condition, housing condition, farm hygiene, management and biosecurity practices were collected using a pre-tested structured questionnaire. Generalized Linear Models (GLM) and Generalized Linear Mixed Models (GLMM) were used to analyze the herd and animal level risk factors, respectively. The herd prevalence was 22.4% (95% CI: 17–29%) while the animal prevalence was 5.2% (95% CI: 4–6%) at the cut-off >4 mm. The herd prevalence rose to 65.5% (95% CI: 58–72%) and the animal prevalence rose to 9% (95% CI: 8–10%) when the severe interpretation of >2 mm cut-off was applied. The mean within-herd prevalence in positive farms at the cut-off >4 mm was 22.7% (95% CI: 15–31%). At the herd level, the analysis showed that herd size, farm hygiene, feeding condition and biosecurity were significantly associated with BTB status, while new cattle introductions showed only borderline significance and that age of farm, housing condition, farmers’ educational status and animal health care practice were not significant. At the animal level, the results showed that age and animal origin were identified as significant predictors for BTB positivity but sex and body condition score were not related to BTB status. Descriptive analysis revealed that herds having ‘BTB history’ showed slightly higher likelihood of being BTB positive compared to farms having no previous BTB exposure. In conclusion, this study showed relatively lower average prevalence in the emerging dairy regions as compared to the prevalence observed in and around Addis Ababa City, warranting for implementation of control program at this stage to reduce or possibly stop further transmission of BTB

Smallholder agriculture and household food and nutrition security: a study from East Hararghe, Ethiopia

This study was conducted in Babille district, East Hararghe, Ethiopia, a mixed crop-livestock region selected because of its vulnerability to malnutrition. A sample of 400 rural households were drawn randomly from four kebelles in this district. A combination of qualitative and quantitative methods were used. The findings indicated that agricultural production was mainly focused on staple food crops such as sorghum and maize, and a limited range of cash crops and animal products for sale. Nutritionally important food types such as vegetables, fruits, beans, eggs and meat were produced only by a minority of households and were largely sold for cash rather than being consumed within the producer household. From a dietary perspective households produced a limited number of food groups. Farming was also the main source of cash income with additional cash income obtained from a range of off-farm and non-farm activities, particularly wage labour, which were particularly important to the poorest households. In terms of food availability, more than half of the households experienced a food gap during the year, which was worse for female-headed households than their male counterparts; considerable differences was also found across the four kebelles. Diets in the area were dominated by cereals, and consumption of high-value foods such as meat, eggs, fruits, vitamin A-rich vegetables and dark green leafy vegetables was limited to small proportions of households, indicating a severe risk of nutrient deficiencies. Important seasonal differences were found in terms of household food access and dietary diversity between pre-harvest and post-harvest seasons. Regression analysis indicated that households producing diverse crops, with higher farm income, larger landholding size and larger household size had higher dietary diversity. The study concludes that agriculture production contributes positively to dietary diversity through own provision of food and cash income from farming

Selection index for improving grain yield and related traits in Tef (Eragrostis Tef)

Selection indices provide useful information to breeders who usually base selection on meansand ranks. Knowledge on selection criteria for improving tef grain yield is very limited. Accordingly, theobjective of this study was to develop selection criteria for improving tef grain yield through indirect yieldcomponent selection via a selection index. Different trait combinations along with three selection methods(based on best linear unbiased predictors (BLUPs), plot basis, and mean of genotypes) were studied attwo locations, Melkassa and Debre Zeit, Ethiopia, in 2003 and 2004, using recombinant inbred lines(RILs) of tef crosses. Selection based solely on grain yield was estimated to be less effective thanselecting based on grain yield, panicle seed weight and shoot biomass. BLUPs showed smaller meanvalues for panicle length, and shoot biomass compared with selection based on individual plots. Selectionbased on individual plots selected higher yielding genotypes than BLUPs method. Higher gains wereobtained from selection based on grain yield, shoot biomass, panicle seed weight, panicle length, andlodging index, followed by selection based on grain yield, shoot biomass, and days to maturity. The useof a selection index made it possible to detect desirable correlated responses in grain yield, shoot biomass,panicle seed weight and panicle length. This suggested that the use of a selection index might be a usefulindirect selection criterion to improve grain yield. Further research is required to validate the results ofthe present study