Efficient generation of transgenic pigs using equine infectious anaemia virus (EIAV) derived vector

AbstractTraditional methods of transgene delivery in livestock are inefficient. Recently, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) based lentiviral vectors have been shown to offer an efficient transgene delivery system. We now extend this method by demonstrating efficient generation of transgenic pigs using an equine infectious anaemia virus derived vector. We used this vector to deliver a green fluorescent protein expressing transgene; 31% of injected/transferred eggs resulted in a transgenic founder animal and 95% of founder animals displayed green fluorescence. This compares favourably with results using HIV-1 based vectors, and is substantially more efficient than the standard pronuclear microinjection method, indicating that lentiviral transgene delivery may be a general tool with which to efficiently generate transgenic mammals

Milk Lacking α-Casein Leads to Permanent Reduction in Body Size in Mice

The major physiological function of milk is the transport of amino acids, carbohydrates, lipids and minerals to mammalian offspring. Caseins, the major milk proteins, are secreted in the form of a micelle consisting of protein and calcium-phosphate

An integrated expression atlas of miRNAs and their promoters in human and mouse

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short non-coding RNAs with key roles in cellular regulation. As part of the fifth edition of the Functional Annotation of Mammalian Genome (FANTOM5) project, we created an integrated expression atlas of miRNAs and their promoters by deep-sequencing 492 short RNA (sRNA) libraries, with matching Cap Analysis Gene Expression (CAGE) data, from 396 human and 47 mouse RNA samples. Promoters were identified for 1,357 human and 804 mouse miRNAs and showed strong sequence conservation between species. We also found that primary and mature miRNA expression levels were correlated, allowing us to use the primary miRNA measurements as a proxy for mature miRNA levels in a total of 1,829 human and 1,029 mouse CAGE libraries. We thus provide a broad atlas of miRNA expression and promoters in primary mammalian cells, establishing a foundation for detailed analysis of miRNA expression patterns and transcriptional control regions

Comparison regarding general health and behaviour between pups nursed by wild-type dams and pups nursed by α-casein deficient dams.

<p>P-values of parameters without significant differences between group 1 (G1: wild-type pups nursed by wild-type dams) and 2 (G2: wild-type pups nursed by α-casein deficient dams; P-value G1 vs. G2) and group 1 and 3 (G3: heterozygous pups nursed by wild-type dams; P-value G1 vs. G3) at 8 weeks of age (Fisher's exact test and *Mann-Whitney-U test). Constant values indicate that all animals in the groups compared had the same, normal, score.</p

Analysis of milk calcium and phosphate levels and milk protein gene expression.

<p><b>Panel A:</b> Calcium and phosphate content of mouse milk was determined as indicated in the methods section. Concentrations are given in nM. <b>Panel B:</b> Quantitative PCR analysis of α-casein and β-casein gene expression. cDNA derived from representative wild-type, heterozygous [+/−] and homozygous [−/−] α-casein deficient mice was analysed using primer pairs specific for α-casein, β-casein and the reference gene GAPDH. Expression of the casein genes was correlated with the reference gene and is expressed as pg casein/pg GAPDH. <b>Panel C:</b> Quantitative PCR analysis of γ-casein and κ-casein gene expression. Expression of the γ and κ-casein genes was correlated with the reference gene and is expressed as pg casein/pg GAPDH. <b>Panel D:</b> Correlation of casein gene expression in wild type [+/+], heterozygous [+/−] and α-casein deficient mice [−/−] using quantitative PCR. Casein gene expression was correlated with the expression of the reference gene β-actin. Quantification of α-casein was done in 3 [+/+], 7 [+/−] and 5 [−/−] mice. Quantification of β-casein was done in 3 [+/+], 8 [+/−] and 4 [−/−] mice. Quantification of γ- and k-casein was done in 3 [+/+], 3 [+/−] and 3 [−/−] mice. Expression in heterozygous and α-casein deficient mice is presented as percentage of median casein gene expression in wild-type control mice [+/+] (set to 100%). Error bars represent standard deviations. For comparisons against wild-type mice in a one-way ANOVA p<0.05 is indicated by *, p<0.01 by **, and p<0.001 by ***. Exact p values are presented in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0021775#pone-0021775-t006" target="_blank">table 6</a>.</p

Analysis of markers of apoptosis in mammary tissue from α-casein deficient mice.

<p><b>Panel A:</b> Western blot analysis of samples derived from two α-casein deficient mice and one heterozygous mouse (all taken at mid-lactation). The protein extracts were separated on a 10% (upper panel) and 15% (lower panel) polyacrylamide-gel blotted to nitrocellulose and detected using antisera against β-actin (upper panel) and the cleavage product of caspase 3 (lower panel). Extracts from RAW264 cells treated with 10 µM staurosporin (STS) for 6 h were used as positive control. The sizes of the protein molecular weight markers (Cell Signaling Technologies, biotinylated protein marker) are indicated as are the positions of the β-actin and caspase 3 proteins (arrows) <b>Panel B:</b> Analysis of caspase 3 and caspase 7 activity in cytoplasmic extracts of mammary gland tissue of control [+/+], heterozygous [+/−] and α-casein deficient mice [−/−] using a Caspase-Glo assay (Promega). Extracts derived from RAW264 cells treated with staurosporin were used as positive control. <b>Panel C:</b> Correlation of gene expression in wild type [+/+], heterozygous [+/−] and α-casein deficient mice [−/−] using quantitative PCR. Expression of the genes encoding the apoptosis related proteins nucleolar protein 3 (Nol3; up-regulated), Birc5 (up-regulated) and Traf1 (down-regulated) were correlated with the expression of the reference gene β-actin. Quantification was done in 3 [+/+], 6 [+/−] and 5 [−/−] mice. Statistical analysis using one-way ANOVA demonstrates that the expression changes for all three genes observed in α-casein deficient mice with respect to both wild-type and heterozygous mice occur with p<0.05. For comparisons against wild-type mice in a one-way ANOVA p<0.05 is indicated by *, and p<0.001 by ***.</p

Significance of changes in protein ratios.

<p>Milk protein expression was analysed in wild-type mice [+/+] (n = 3), heterozygous mice [+/−] (n = 6) and α-casein deficient mice [−/−] (n = 5). Expression was quantified by densitometric scanning of protein gels and correlation of the net intensities with a molecular weight marker of known concentration. The protein ratios of α-casein to albumin (acas/alb.), α-casein to β-casein (acas/bcas), β-casein to γ-casein (bcas/gcas), β-casein to albumin (bcas/alb.) and γ-casein to albumin (gcas/alb.) were determined. The data were analysed by ANOVA for one way comparisons. The p values obtained for the different comparisons are shown. P values in bold print are below the cut off points of 0.01 or 0.001 (as indicated).</p

Impact of α-casein deficient milk on pup growth.

<p><b>Panel A:</b> Growth curve of three different groups of mice during lactation (G1: wild-type pups nursed by wild-type dams n = 34; G2: wild-type pups nursed by α-casein deficient [−/−] dams, n = 25; and G3: heterozygous pups nursed by wild-type dams, n = 22). Values shown are +/− standard deviation. All weight differences between group G2 vs. G1 and G3 were significant from day 7 (p<0.001) as assessed by ANOVA. <b>Panel B:</b> Percentage weight gain throughout different stages of life for the three experimental groups. The weight of individual mice was compared on two days (as indicated: e.g. 1/3 corresponds to the interval between day 3 and day 1 of life) and the percent weight increase was recorded. The average for all mice in the three experimental groups is shown for consecutive time periods. <b>Panel C:</b> Growth curve of mice in the three groups over the first 6 months of life. Mice nursed by α-casein deficient dams show a consistent growth deficiency. <b>Panel D:</b> Growth curve of mice in the three groups of mice over the first 6 months of life separated by gender. Error bars represent standard deviations.</p

Immuno-histochemistry analysis of mammary tissue.

<p><b>Panel A:</b> Paraffin embedded sections of mammary tissue (day 10 lactation) were analysed using a rabbit-anti α-casein antiserum. The slides were subsequently counterstained with haematoxylin. Representative sections derived from wild-type [+/+], heterozygous [+/−] and homozygous [−/−] α-casein deficient mice are presented. The lower panels are control sections incubated with a rabbit pre-immune serum in place of the α-casein specific antiserum. <b>Panel B:</b> Representative sections derived from wild-type [+/+], heterozygous [+/−] and homozygous [−/−] α-casein deficient mice at day 10 of lactation stained with haematoxylin.</p

Experimental groups.

<p>Experimental groups.</p