Ecological linkages: Marine and estuarine ecosystems of Central and Northern California

Three of California’s four National Marine Sanctuaries, Cordell Bank, Gulf of the Farallones, and Monterey Bay, are currently undergoing a comprehensive management plan review. As part of this review, NOAA’s National Marine Sanctuary Program (NMSP) has collaborated with NOAA’s National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science (NCCOS) to conduct a biogeographic assessment of selected marine resources using geographic information system (GIS) technology. This report complements the analyses conducted for this effort by providing an overview of the physical and biological characteristics of the region. Key ecosystems and species occurring in estuarine and marine waters are highlighted and linkages between them discussed. In addition, this report describes biogeographic processes operating to affect species’ distributional patterns. The biogeographic analyses build upon this background to further understanding of the biogeography of this region. (PDF contaons 172 pages

Studies on the Morphology, Feeding Behaviour and Breeding Biology of Skuas (Family Stercorariidae) With Reference to Kleptoparasitism

1) The kleptoparasitic success rates of light and melanic Arctic skuas did not differ significantly. Great skuas were significantly more successful than Arctic skuas in inducing their victims to release their fish, and in securing these dropped fish. 2) Both species of skua had significantly higher kleptoparasitic success rates than "gulls" chasing the same range of species at the same location. 3) Groups of Arctic skuas were significantly more successful in inducing their victims to release their fish than were solitary Arctic skuas. This was not the case for great skuas. Kleptoparasitic association between skuas seems to be an example of a selfish group. 4) Chases by great skuas were more likely to be successful if the victim was high above the water when the chase began and was slow to react to the attacking skua. Chases by Arctic skuas were more likely to be successful if the skua approached to within 1 metre of the victim and if the chase was towards the cliff. 5) Arctic skuas and great skuas differed in the locations at which they concentrated their kleptoparasitic efforts and in the methods of attack which they employed. Generally, Arctic skuas relied less on rapid descending stoops from above their victims than did great skuas and used flapping flight in a significantly higher proportion of chases than great skuas. 6) Arctic skuas rearing chicks had rates of energy expenditure equivalent to 3.3 - 3.9 times BMR. The rate of energy expenditure by breeding great skuas which were rearing chicks was equivalent to 5.0 - 5.8 times BMR. Energy expenditure was greater than in the mid-1970s when host availability was higher. 7) The daily energetic reward from kleptoparasitism was sufficient to meet the daily energy requirements of three pairs of great skuas and two pairs of Arctic skuas with normal brood sizes. A pair of Arctic skuas with three chicks had a negative energy balance. 8) Mean clutch size, egg volume and hatching success of Arctic skuas in 1987 were as high as in 1979. Mean clutch size and hatching success of great skuas were as high in 1987 as in the mid-1970s. 9) The growth rates of skua chicks in 1987 were not as high as in the mid-1970s. The fledging success of great skuas in 1987 was lower than in the mid-1970s. The breeding success of Arctic skuas was significantly lower in 1987 than in 1979 due to extremely heavy predation of Arctic skua fledglings by great skuas in 1987. 10) Breeding skuas spent considerably more time foraging during the latter part of the pre-fledging period in 1986 and 1987 than in the mid-to-late 1970s. In 1986 and 1987, great skuas frequently left their chicks unguarded and hence open to predation by neighbouring skuas. 11) Arctic skuas and great skuas were found to differ significantly in many aspects of their morphology from equivalently-sized gulls. On theoretical grounds these differences appear to enhance the kleptoparasitic flight performance of skuas relative to that of gulls. 12) It is suggested that these morphological differences between gulls and skuas, although beneficial to skuas' kleptoparasitic flight performance, are not the result of specialisations which evolved specifically for this purpose. It is proposed that skuas are morphologically pre-adapted to behaving kleptoparasitically as a consequence of their evolution to a more predatory way of life than gulls. 13) It is suggested that the highly kleptoparasitic nature of skuas is the result of morphologically and behaviourally pre-adapted species utilising this feeding technique when possible and profitable to do so. 14) The flight muscles of a great skua and a herring gull were not found to contain any "white" fibres. The pectoralis major and pectoralis minor muscles of the great skua had higher levels of oxidative and glycolytic enzyme activity than the equivalent muscles of the herring gull. 15) The possession of morphological adaptations which enhance the kleptoparasitic success rate of skuas could be of benefit in three ways. Firstly, with a higher success rate this feeding technique may be profitable enough to allow skuas to switch from other feeding techniques, in the face of a food shortage, and to continue to breed successfully when a lower success rate would preclude this possibility. Secondly, a higher success rate reduces the time and energy expenditure required to collect a given amount of food. Under conditions of food shortage, this could be of great importance in maintaining adult energy expenditure below some critical level above which parental survival may be jeopardised, and in minimising the likelihood that parents will have to leave their chicks unattended. Thirdly, the ability to feed successfully by kleptoparasitism may allow skuas to breed in areas of the world where, with a lower success rate, they could not

A point for comparison: the Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary

A reoccurring goal listed during the creation of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) is to return the region to a former state. However, limited data is available that describes or characterizes this former condition. Data collected from ecosystems with comparatively limited anthropogenic impacts, can provide invaluable information in suggesting what former states may have looked like. One example is the Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary which is located 180 kilometers off the coast of Texas. These relatively isolated and pristine banks are capped by substantial scleractinian coral communities, forming excellent habitat for over 200 species of fish. While fishing is permitted, it is limited by difficulty of access. In 2006, NOAA’s Biogeography Branch, in collaboration with the Sanctuary, initiated the first quantitative assessment of fish resources throughout the diveable portions of the Sanctuary. The sampling design and methodologies employed were identical to those that the Branch has utilized in other more impacted regions of the US Caribbean. Initial analyses reveal that fish density and species richness at the Sanctuary were almost two times greater than that found within the US Caribbean and biomass was approximately six times higher. This was due in large part to the presence of sizeable piscivores of the genera Mycteroperca and Dermatolepis. The Sanctuary is one of few minimally impacted locations remaining within the Tropical Western Atlantic. As such, these findings should be considered when attempting to establish a former state or evaluate effectiveness of an MPA in meeting its management goals

Analysis of Sample Frames and Subsampling Methods for Reef Fish Surveys

Introduction: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Biogeography Branch has conducted surveys of reef fish in the Caribbean since 1999. Surveys were initially undertaken to identify essential fish habitat, but later were used to characterize and monitor reef fish populations and benthic communities over time. The Branch’s goals are to develop knowledge and products on the distribution and ecology of living marine resources and provide resource managers, scientists and the public with an improved ecosystem basis for making decisions. The Biogeography Branch monitors reef fishes and benthic communities in three study areas: (1) St. John, USVI, (2) Buck Island, St. Croix, USVI, and (3) La Parguera, Puerto Rico. In addition, the Branch has characterized the reef fish and benthic communities in the Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary, Gray’s Reef National Marine Sanctuary and around the island of Vieques, Puerto Rico. Reef fish data are collected using a stratified random sampling design and stringent measurement protocols. Over time, the sampling design has changed in order to meet different management objectives (i.e. identification of essential fish habitat vs. monitoring), but the designs have always remained: • Probabilistic – to allow inferences to a larger targeted population, • Objective – to satisfy management objectives, and • Stratified – to reduce sampling costs and obtain population estimates for strata. There are two aspects of the sampling design which are now under consideration and are the focus of this report: first, the application of a sample frame, identified as a set of points or grid elements from which a sample is selected; and second, the application of subsampling in a two-stage sampling design. To evaluate these considerations, the pros and cons of implementing a sampling frame and subsampling are discussed. Particular attention is paid to the impacts of each design on accuracy (bias), feasibility and sampling cost (precision). Further, this report presents an analysis of data to determine the optimal number of subsamples to collect if subsampling were used. (PDF contains 19 pages

An assessment of chemical contaminants in the marine sediments of southwest Puerto Rico

This report summarizes the results of a characterization of chemical contaminants in the sediments in southwest Puerto Rico. The report is part of a project to integrate various analytical specialties to assess linkages between chemical contaminants and the condition of coral reefs. In this phase of the project, over 120 chemical contaminants were analyzed in sediments collected, including a number of organic (e.g., hydrocarbons), inorganic (e.g., metals), and biological (bacterial) compounds/analytes. The report also provides a preliminary analysis of the association between sediment contaminants and coral species richness. Overall, the levels of chemical contaminants in the study area between Guanica Bay and the town of La Parguera were fairly low. At most of the sites sampled, particularly adjacent to the town of La Parguera, concentrations of organic and inorganic contaminants were below the median values from NOAA’s National Status and Trends Program, which monitors the Nation’s coastal and estuarine waters for chemical contaminants. Elevated levels of a number of contaminant classes were seen at the two sites sampled within Guanica Bay. An initial analysis of modeled PAH (hydrocarbon) data and coral species richness (reef building species) indicated a strong negative correlation between the presence of PAHs in the sediments and coral species richness. Additional work is needed to assess possible reasons for this observed pattern. (PDF contains 126 pages)

Midwives' competence : is it affected by working in a rural location?

Introduction: Rising health care costs and the need to consolidate expertise in tertiary services have led to the centralisation of services. In the UK, the result has been that many rural maternity units have become midwife-led. A key consideration is that midwives have the skills to competently and confidently provide maternity services in rural areas, which may be geographically isolated and where the midwife may only see a small number of pregnant women each year. Our objective was to compare the views of midwives in rural and urban settings, regarding their competence and confidence with respect to ‘competencies’ identified as being those which all professionals should have in order to provide effective and safe care for low-risk women. Method: This was a comparative questionnaire survey involving a stratified sample of remote and rural maternity units and an ad hoc comparison group of three urban maternity units in Scotland. Questionnaires were sent to 82 midwives working in remote and rural areas and 107 midwives working in urban hospitals with midwife-led units. Results: The response rate from midwives in rural settings was considerably higher (85%) than from midwives in the urban areas (60%). Although the proportion of midwives who reported that they were competent was broadly similar in the two groups, there were some significant differences regarding specific competencies. Midwives in the rural group were more likely to report competence for breech delivery (p = 0.001), while more urban midwives reported competence in skills such as intravenous fluid replacement (p <0.001) and initial and discharge examination of the newborn (p <0.001). Both groups reported facing barriers to continuing professional development; however, more of the rural group had attended an educational event within the last month (p <0.001). Lack of time was a greater barrier for urban midwives (p = 0.02), whereas distance to training was greater for rural midwives (p = 0.009). Lack of motivation or interest was significantly higher in urban units (p = 0.006). Conclusion: It is often assumed that midwives in rural areas where there are fewer deliveries, will be less competent and confident in their practice. Our exploratory study suggests that the issue of competence is far more complex and deserves further attention.NHS Education Scotlan