Annexins and Membrane Repair Dysfunctions in Muscular Dystrophies

Muscular dystrophies constitute a group of genetic disorders that cause weakness and progressive loss of skeletal muscle mass. Among them, Miyoshi muscular dystrophy 1 (MMD1), limb girdle muscular dystrophy type R2 (LGMDR2/2B), and LGMDR12 (2L) are characterized by mutation in gene encoding key membrane-repair protein, which leads to severe dysfunctions in sarcolemma repair. Cell membrane disruption is a physiological event induced by mechanical stress, such as muscle contraction and stretching. Like many eukaryotic cells, muscle fibers possess a protein machinery ensuring fast resealing of damaged plasma membrane. Members of the annexins A (ANXA) family belong to this protein machinery. ANXA are small soluble proteins, twelve in number in humans, which share the property of binding to membranes exposing negatively-charged phospholipids in the presence of calcium (Ca2+). Many ANXA have been reported to participate in membrane repair of varied cell types and species, including human skeletal muscle cells in which they may play a collective role in protection and repair of the sarcolemma. Here, we discuss the participation of ANXA in membrane repair of healthy skeletal muscle cells and how dysregulation of ANXA expression may impact the clinical severity of muscular dystrophies

Annexins in membrane repair of human muscle cells

Les dystrophies musculaires sont un groupe de pathologies génétiques qui cause une faiblesse et une perte progressive des muscles squelettiques. Parmi elles, la dystrophie des ceintures de type 2B (LGMD2B) est caractérisée par des mutations dans le gène de la dysferline, entrainant de sévères dysfonctionnements, dont un défaut de réparation membranaire. Les ruptures de la membrane plasmique sont des évènements physiologiques induits par des contraintes mécaniques, comme lors de la contraction des fibres musculaires. Les cellules eucaryotes possèdent donc une machinerie protéique assurant une réparation rapide de larges ruptures membranaires. La liste exhaustive des composants de la machinerie de réparation et leur mode d’action reste à établir.Les annexines (Anx) sont de petites protéines solubles, au nombre de 12 chez les mammifères, qui partagent la propriété de lier les membranes exposant des phospholipides chargés négativement en présence de Ca2+. De nombreuses études ont montré l’implication de certaines Anx (AnxA1, A2, A4, A5, A6 et A7) dans la réparation membranaire de différents types cellulaires (muscle, cancer, endothélium…) et dans différentes espèces (souris, poisson-zèbre, homme…). La présence des Anx dans le muscle squelettique, et la participation de plusieurs membres de cette famille dans la réparation membranaire, soulèvent la question d’un rôle collectif de ces protéines dans la protection et la réparation des ruptures du sarcolemme.Les objectifs de ce travail ont été 1) d’identifier les Anx impliquées dans la réparation membranaire des cellules musculaires squelettiques humaines, 2) développer une stratégie de microscopie corrélative pour étudier le site de rupture et la distribution subcellulaire des Anx à haute résolution, 3) élucider la fonction des Anx dans le mécanisme de réparation, et 4) analyser les Anx dans des cellules musculaires dystrophiques. Avec des approches en biologie cellulaire et moléculaire, et en microscopie de fluorescence et électronique, nous avons donc étudié le comportement des Anx lors d’un dommage du sarcolemme.Nous avons ainsi montré que les AnxA1, A2, A4, A5 et A6 sont exprimées dans les myoblastes et les myotubes humains, et sont recrutées au site de rupture quelques secondes après le dommage, en formant une structure dense à l’extérieur du myotube endommagé appelé domaine « cap ». De plus, nous avons pu déterminer l’ordre relatif de recrutement des Anx au site membranaire endommagé. Les premières Anx à être recrutées sont l’AnxA1, suivies des AnxA6 et A5, les moins sensibles au Ca2+. Les dernières Anx recrutées sont les plus sensibles au Ca2+, les AnxA4 puis A2, qui semblent se lier à des vésicules intracellulaires initialement éloignées du site de rupture. Nous avons également étudié l’ultrastructure du site de rupture à haute résolution. Nos résultats ont révélé que le domaine « cap » correspondait à une accumulation de matériel membranaire qui est associé au Anx. En s’appuyant sur nos résultats et la littérature, nous avons proposé un modèle de réparation membranaire, impliquant les AnxA1, A2, A4, A5 et A6, dans les cellules musculaires squelettiques humaines. Nous nous sommes également intéressés à l’expression des Anx dans des lignées de cellules musculaires dystrophiques issues de patients atteints de dystrophies musculaires des ceintures de type 2B (déficients en dysferline) et 1C (déficients en cavéoline-3). Nous avons ainsi montré que le contexte pathologique perturbait l’expression de certaines Anx, sans en modifier leur localisation subcellulaire.En conclusion, ce travail de thèse montre que plusieurs membres de la famille des Anx sont impliqués dans la réparation membranaire, et agissent de concert pour réparer un dommage de la membrane plasmique. L’implication des Anx dans d’autres pathologies, comme le cancer et la pré-éclampsie, renforce l’intérêt de leur étude dans les processus de réparation membranaire et en font une cible thérapeutique potentielle.Muscular dystrophy encompasses a group of genetic disorders which cause progressive weakness and wasting of skeletal muscle. Among them, limb girdle muscular dystrophy type 2B (LGMD2B) is characterized by mutations in the dysferlin gene leading to several dysfunctions including a failure in cell membrane repair process. Cell membrane disruption is a physiological phenomenon induced by mechanical stress, such as contraction of muscle fibers. Thus, eukaryotic cells have a repair protein machinery ensuring a rapid resealing of large cell membrane ruptures. The exhaustive list of components of the repair machinery and their interplay remain to be established.The annexin (Anx) family consists of twelve soluble proteins in mammals and share the property of binding to membranes exposing negatively charged phospholipids in a Ca2+-dependent manner. Several studies have shown the involvement of Anx (AnxA1, A2, A4, A5, A6 and A7) in membrane repair of different cell types (muscle, cancer, endothelium…) in different species (mouse, zebrafish, human…). The presence of different Anx in skeletal muscle, together with the participation of several members of the Anx family in membrane repair processes, raise the question of a collective role of these proteins in the protection and repair of sarcolemma injuries.The PhD project aimed 1) at identifying Anx that are essential for membrane repair in human skeletal muscle cells, 2) developing a correlative light and electron microscopy to study the wounded site and the Anx distribution at high resolution, 3) elucidating the function of each Anx in this process and 4) analyzing Anx in dystrophic muscle cells. Using approaches including cellular and molecular biology, fluorescence microscopy and transmission electron microscopy, we studied the behavior of Anx during sarcolemma damage.We showed that AnxA1, A2, A4, A5 and A6 are expressed in human myoblasts and myotubes, and are recruited at the disruption site within seconds after the sarcolemmal damage, forming a dense structure outside the cell, named the “cap” domain. Furthermore, we determined the relative order of Anx recruitment at the disruption site. The first Anx recruited are AnxA1, followed by AnxA6 and A5, the less sensitive to Ca2+. The last Anx recruited are the most sensitive to Ca2+, AnxA4 and A2. AnxA2 and A4 are instead rapidly recruited to intracellular vesicles present deeper in the cytosol. We also studied the ultrastructure of the disruption site at high resolution. Our results revealed that the “cap” domain correspond to a disorganized membrane structure, associated with the Anx. Thanks to our results and the literature, we have proposed a model for membrane repair involving Anx in human skeletal muscle cells. We also looked at the expression of Anx in dystrophic muscle cell lines from patients with limb girdle muscular dystrophy type 2B (dysferline deficient) and 1C (deficient in cadaveoline-3). We have thus shown that the pathological context disrupts the expression of some Anx, without altering their subcellular location.In conclusion, this work shows that several members of the Anx family are involved in membrane repair and act together to repair plasma membrane damage. The implication of Anx in other pathologies, such as preeclampsia or cancer, reinforces the interest of their study in the process of membrane repair

Le rôle des Annexines dans la réparation membranaire des cellules musculaires squelettiques humaines

Muscular dystrophy encompasses a group of genetic disorders which cause progressive weakness and wasting of skeletal muscle. Among them, limb girdle muscular dystrophy type 2B (LGMD2B) is characterized by mutations in the dysferlin gene leading to several dysfunctions including a failure in cell membrane repair process. Cell membrane disruption is a physiological phenomenon induced by mechanical stress, such as contraction of muscle fibers. Thus, eukaryotic cells have a repair protein machinery ensuring a rapid resealing of large cell membrane ruptures. The exhaustive list of components of the repair machinery and their interplay remain to be established.The annexin (Anx) family consists of twelve soluble proteins in mammals and share the property of binding to membranes exposing negatively charged phospholipids in a Ca2+-dependent manner. Several studies have shown the involvement of Anx (AnxA1, A2, A4, A5, A6 and A7) in membrane repair of different cell types (muscle, cancer, endothelium…) in different species (mouse, zebrafish, human…). The presence of different Anx in skeletal muscle, together with the participation of several members of the Anx family in membrane repair processes, raise the question of a collective role of these proteins in the protection and repair of sarcolemma injuries.The PhD project aimed 1) at identifying Anx that are essential for membrane repair in human skeletal muscle cells, 2) developing a correlative light and electron microscopy to study the wounded site and the Anx distribution at high resolution, 3) elucidating the function of each Anx in this process and 4) analyzing Anx in dystrophic muscle cells. Using approaches including cellular and molecular biology, fluorescence microscopy and transmission electron microscopy, we studied the behavior of Anx during sarcolemma damage.We showed that AnxA1, A2, A4, A5 and A6 are expressed in human myoblasts and myotubes, and are recruited at the disruption site within seconds after the sarcolemmal damage, forming a dense structure outside the cell, named the “cap” domain. Furthermore, we determined the relative order of Anx recruitment at the disruption site. The first Anx recruited are AnxA1, followed by AnxA6 and A5, the less sensitive to Ca2+. The last Anx recruited are the most sensitive to Ca2+, AnxA4 and A2. AnxA2 and A4 are instead rapidly recruited to intracellular vesicles present deeper in the cytosol. We also studied the ultrastructure of the disruption site at high resolution. Our results revealed that the “cap” domain correspond to a disorganized membrane structure, associated with the Anx. Thanks to our results and the literature, we have proposed a model for membrane repair involving Anx in human skeletal muscle cells. We also looked at the expression of Anx in dystrophic muscle cell lines from patients with limb girdle muscular dystrophy type 2B (dysferline deficient) and 1C (deficient in cadaveoline-3). We have thus shown that the pathological context disrupts the expression of some Anx, without altering their subcellular location.In conclusion, this work shows that several members of the Anx family are involved in membrane repair and act together to repair plasma membrane damage. The implication of Anx in other pathologies, such as preeclampsia or cancer, reinforces the interest of their study in the process of membrane repair.Les dystrophies musculaires sont un groupe de pathologies génétiques qui cause une faiblesse et une perte progressive des muscles squelettiques. Parmi elles, la dystrophie des ceintures de type 2B (LGMD2B) est caractérisée par des mutations dans le gène de la dysferline, entrainant de sévères dysfonctionnements, dont un défaut de réparation membranaire. Les ruptures de la membrane plasmique sont des évènements physiologiques induits par des contraintes mécaniques, comme lors de la contraction des fibres musculaires. Les cellules eucaryotes possèdent donc une machinerie protéique assurant une réparation rapide de larges ruptures membranaires. La liste exhaustive des composants de la machinerie de réparation et leur mode d’action reste à établir.Les annexines (Anx) sont de petites protéines solubles, au nombre de 12 chez les mammifères, qui partagent la propriété de lier les membranes exposant des phospholipides chargés négativement en présence de Ca2+. De nombreuses études ont montré l’implication de certaines Anx (AnxA1, A2, A4, A5, A6 et A7) dans la réparation membranaire de différents types cellulaires (muscle, cancer, endothélium…) et dans différentes espèces (souris, poisson-zèbre, homme…). La présence des Anx dans le muscle squelettique, et la participation de plusieurs membres de cette famille dans la réparation membranaire, soulèvent la question d’un rôle collectif de ces protéines dans la protection et la réparation des ruptures du sarcolemme.Les objectifs de ce travail ont été 1) d’identifier les Anx impliquées dans la réparation membranaire des cellules musculaires squelettiques humaines, 2) développer une stratégie de microscopie corrélative pour étudier le site de rupture et la distribution subcellulaire des Anx à haute résolution, 3) élucider la fonction des Anx dans le mécanisme de réparation, et 4) analyser les Anx dans des cellules musculaires dystrophiques. Avec des approches en biologie cellulaire et moléculaire, et en microscopie de fluorescence et électronique, nous avons donc étudié le comportement des Anx lors d’un dommage du sarcolemme.Nous avons ainsi montré que les AnxA1, A2, A4, A5 et A6 sont exprimées dans les myoblastes et les myotubes humains, et sont recrutées au site de rupture quelques secondes après le dommage, en formant une structure dense à l’extérieur du myotube endommagé appelé domaine « cap ». De plus, nous avons pu déterminer l’ordre relatif de recrutement des Anx au site membranaire endommagé. Les premières Anx à être recrutées sont l’AnxA1, suivies des AnxA6 et A5, les moins sensibles au Ca2+. Les dernières Anx recrutées sont les plus sensibles au Ca2+, les AnxA4 puis A2, qui semblent se lier à des vésicules intracellulaires initialement éloignées du site de rupture. Nous avons également étudié l’ultrastructure du site de rupture à haute résolution. Nos résultats ont révélé que le domaine « cap » correspondait à une accumulation de matériel membranaire qui est associé au Anx. En s’appuyant sur nos résultats et la littérature, nous avons proposé un modèle de réparation membranaire, impliquant les AnxA1, A2, A4, A5 et A6, dans les cellules musculaires squelettiques humaines. Nous nous sommes également intéressés à l’expression des Anx dans des lignées de cellules musculaires dystrophiques issues de patients atteints de dystrophies musculaires des ceintures de type 2B (déficients en dysferline) et 1C (déficients en cavéoline-3). Nous avons ainsi montré que le contexte pathologique perturbait l’expression de certaines Anx, sans en modifier leur localisation subcellulaire.En conclusion, ce travail de thèse montre que plusieurs membres de la famille des Anx sont impliqués dans la réparation membranaire, et agissent de concert pour réparer un dommage de la membrane plasmique. L’implication des Anx dans d’autres pathologies, comme le cancer et la pré-éclampsie, renforce l’intérêt de leur étude dans les processus de réparation membranaire et en font une cible thérapeutique potentielle

Imaging Membrane Repair in Single Cells Using Correlative Light and Electron Microscopy

Many cells possess the ability to repair plasma membrane disruption in physiological conditions. Growing evidence indicates a correlation between membrane repair and many human diseases. For example, a negative correlation is observed in muscle where failure to reseal sarcolemma may contribute to the development of muscular dystrophies. Instead, a positive correlation is observed in cancer cells where membrane repair may be exacerbated during metastasis. Here we describe a protocol that combines laser technology for membrane damage, immunostaining with gold nanoparticles and imaging by fluorescence microscopy and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), which allows the characterization of the molecular machinery involved in membrane repair. Fluorescence microscopy enables to determine the subcellular localization of candidate proteins in damaged cells while TEM offers high-resolution ultrastructural analysis of the m-disruption site, which enables to decipher the membrane repair mechanism. Here we focus on the study of human skeletal muscle cells, for obvious clinical interest, but this protocol is also suitable for other cell types

Trafficking of Annexins during Membrane Repair in Human Skeletal Muscle Cells

Defects in membrane repair contribute to the development of muscular dystrophies, such as Miyoshi muscular dystrophy 1, limb girdle muscular dystrophy (LGMD), type R2 or R12. Deciphering membrane repair dysfunctions in the development of muscular dystrophies requires precise and detailed knowledge of the membrane repair machinery in healthy human skeletal muscle cells. Using correlative light and electron microscopy (CLEM), we studied the trafficking of four members of the annexin (ANX) family, in myotubes damaged by laser ablation. Our data support a model in which ANXA4 and ANXA6 are recruited to the disruption site by propagating as a wave-like motion along the sarcolemma. They may act in membrane resealing by proceeding to sarcolemma remodeling. On the other hand, ANXA1 and A2 exhibit a progressive cytoplasmic recruitment, likely by interacting with intracellular vesicles, in order to form the lipid patch required for membrane resealing. Once the sarcolemma has been resealed, ANXA1 is released from the site of the membrane injury and returns to the cytosol, while ANXA2 remains accumulated close to the wounding site on the cytoplasmic side. On the other side of the repaired sarcolemma are ANXA4 and ANXA6 that face the extracellular milieu, where they are concentrated in a dense structure, the cap subdomain. The proposed model provides a basis for the identification of cellular dysregulations in the membrane repair of dystrophic human muscle cells

Annexin-A6 in Membrane Repair of Human Skeletal Muscle Cell: A Role in the Cap Subdomain

Defects in membrane repair contribute to the development of some muscular dystrophies, highlighting the importance to decipher the membrane repair mechanisms in human skeletal muscle. In murine myofibers, the formation of a cap subdomain composed notably by annexins (Anx) is critical for membrane repair. We applied membrane damage by laser ablation to human skeletal muscle cells and assessed the behavior of annexin-A6 (AnxA6) tagged with GFP by correlative light and electron microscopy (CLEM). We show that AnxA6 was recruited to the site of membrane injury within a few seconds after membrane injury. In addition, we show that the deficiency in AnxA6 compromises human sarcolemma repair, demonstrating the crucial role played by AnxA6 in this process. An AnxA6-containing cap-subdomain was formed in damaged human myotubes in about one minute. Through transmission electron microscopy (TEM), we observed that extension of the sarcolemma occurred during membrane resealing, which participated in forming a dense lipid structure in order to plug the hole. By properties of membrane folding and curvature, AnxA6 helped in the formation of this tight structure. The compaction of intracellular membranes—which are used for membrane resealing and engulfed in extensions of the sarcolemma—may also facilitate elimination of the excess of lipid and protein material once cell membrane has been repaired. These data reinforce the role played by AnxA6 and the cap subdomain in membrane repair of skeletal muscle cells

Membrane repair of human skeletal muscle cells requires Annexin-A5

Defect in membrane repair contributes to the development of limb girdle muscular dystrophy type 2B (LGMD2B) and Miyoshi myopathy. In healthy skeletal muscle, unraveling membrane repair mechanisms requires to establish an exhaustive list of the components of the resealing machinery. Here we show that human myotubes rendered deficient for Annexin-A5 (AnxA5) suffer from a severe defect in membrane resealing. This defect is rescued by the addition of recombinant AnxA5 while an AnxA5 mutant, which is unable to form 2D protein arrays, has no effect. Using correlative light and electron microscopy, we show that AnxA5 binds to the edges of the torn membrane, as early as a few seconds after sarcolemma injury, where it probably self-assembles into 2D arrays. In addition, we observed that membrane resealing is associated with the presence of a cluster of lipid vesicles at the wounded site. AnxA5 is present at the surface of these vesicles and may thus participate in plugging the cell membrane disruption. Finally, we show that AnxA5 behaves similarly in myotubes from a muscle cell line established from a patient suffering from LGMD2B, a myopathy due to dysferlin mutations, which indicates that trafficking of AnxA5 during sarcolemma damage is independent of the presence of dysferlin. (C) 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved

DDR1 and DDR2 physical interaction leads to signaling interconnection but with possible distinct functions

<p>Discoidin domain receptors 1 and 2 (DDR1 and DDR2) are members of the tyrosine kinase receptors activated after binding with collagen. DDRs are implicated in numerous physiological and pathological functions such as proliferation, adhesion and migration. Little is known about the expression of the two receptors in normal and cancer cells and most of studies focus only on one receptor. Western blot analysis of DDR1 and DDR2 expression in different tumor cell lines shows an absence of high co-expression of the two receptors suggesting a deleterious effect of their presence at high amount. To study the consequences of high DDR1 and DDR2 co-expression in cells, we over-express the two receptors in HEK 293T cells and compare biological effects to HEK cells over-expressing DDR1 or DDR2. To distinguish between the intracellular dependent and independent activities of the two receptors we over-express an intracellular truncated dominant-negative DDR1 or DDR2 protein (DDR1DN and DDR2DN). No major differences of Erk or Jak2 activation are found after collagen I stimulation, nevertheless Erk activation is higher in cells co-expressing DDR1 and DDR2. DDR1 increases cell proliferation but co-expression of DDR1 and DDR2 is inhibitory. DDR1 but not DDR2 is implicated in cell adhesion to a collagen I matrix. DDR1, and DDR1 and DDR2 co-expression inhibit cell migration. Moreover a DDR1/DDR2 physical interaction is found by co-immunoprecipitation assays. Taken together, our results show a deleterious effect of high co-expression of DDR1 and DDR2 and a physical interaction between the two receptors.</p