WHY NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT IS A UTOPIA

Although nuclear disarmament is a worldwide aspiration from many nations around the world, this dream has not come true. In fact, the number of countries developing nuclear weapons is gradually increasing. Despite the legal framework in place, no single nuclear-weapon state has totally complied with nuclear disarmament. However, each state’s decision to acquire its own nuclear weapon is based on the fact that the international system is anarchical. Likewise, history has highlighted that nations cannot totally trust one another. Additionally, ever-increasing technology, low social capital among states, partial compliance with the legal framework, and miscalculated state narratives contribute to increasing rivalry among countries. Finally, despite criticism, nuclear weapons have the ability to protect what states consider important. As a result, nuclear disarmament is a utopia

El efecto moderador de la calificación crediticia soberana entre el PIB y la deuda soberana

Sovereign credit ratings are very important for any national and international economy. While a sovereign credit rating upgrade can encourage international investors and boost a country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP), a downgrade can have devastating effects for an already weak economy. On the other hand, sovereign debts can have important economic effects and it is related, to some degree, to a country’s GDP. Consequently, there is a need to study how sovereign credit ratings can moderate the relationship between GDP and sovereign debts. To study sovereign credit rating, Moody’s and Standard and Poor’s, as two of the most prestigious credit rating agencies, were taken into consideration. Panama’s public data from 2000 to 2019 related to GDP and sovereign debt was analyzed. Two moderation analyses were performed to test two hypotheses by using SPSS AMOS Version 27.0. The results in the empirical research demonstrated that sovereign credit rating moderates the relation between the two variables. Moody’s and Standard and Poor’s sovereign credit rating demonstrated to be significant in both cases.Las calificaciones crediticias soberanas son muy importantes para cualquier economía nacional e internacional. Si bien una mejora de la calificación crediticia soberana puede alentar a los inversores internacionales y aumentar el Producto Interno Bruto (PIB) de un país, una rebaja puede tener efectos devastadores para una economía ya débil. Por otro lado, las deudas soberanas pueden tener efectos económicos importantes y están relacionadas, en cierta medida, con el PIB de un país. En consecuencia, existe la necesidad de estudiar cómo las calificaciones crediticias soberanas pueden moderar la relación entre el PIB y las deudas soberanas. Para el estudio de la calificación crediticia soberana se tuvo en cuenta a Moody’s y Standard and Poor’s, como dos de las agencias de calificación crediticia más prestigiosas. Se analizaron los datos públicos de Panamá de 2000 a 2019 relacionados con el PIB y la deuda soberana. Se realizaron dos análisis de moderación para probar dos hipótesis utilizando SPSS AMOS Versión 27.0. Los resultados de la investigación empírica demostraron que la calificación crediticia soberana modera la relación entre las dos variables. La calificación crediticia soberana de Moody's y Standard and Poor's demostró ser significativa en ambos casos