Role of Lmx1a and Lmx1b transcription factors in post-mitotic midbrain dopaminergic neurons

Lmx1a et Lmx1b sont des facteurs de transcription connus pour leur rôle au cours du développement des neurones dopaminergiques du mésencéphale (mDA). Ils ont été montrés comme essentiels à chacune des étapes de différentiation des progéniteurs en neurones dopaminergiques matures. Des études récentes ont également mis en évidence l'importance de ces deux facteurs de transcription dans les neurones dopaminergiques chez l'adulte. Lmx1a/b sont impliqués dans la régulation de gènes mitochondriaux ainsi que dans l'autophagie. Cependant, jusqu'à présent, rien n'est connu sur le rôle de Lmx1a/b dans les neurones dopaminergiques post-mitotiques. Le but de cette thèse est d'élucider le rôle de Lmx1a/b dans les neurones dopaminergiques matures. L'analyse des projections axonales dopaminergiques de souris doubles conditionnelles mutantes (cKO) pour Lmx1a/b a mis en évidence un défaut de guidage axonal confirmant le rôle essentiel de ces deux facteurs de transcription dans la formation des circuits dopaminergiques. Afin d’identifier précisément les molécules impliquées dans la régulation du système dopaminergique des techniques adaptées doivent être développées pour déterminer les principaux acteurs régulés par Lmx1a/b. À cette fin, nous avons mis au point une technique de marquage immunohistochimique rapide de la tyrosine hydroxylase (TH, enzyme nécessaire à la synthèse de la dopamine) sur des sections de mésencéphale de souris afin de délimiter la région d’intérêt. Par la suite, nous utilisons une technique de microdissection au laser afin de spécifiquement récolter les cellules dopaminergiques du mésencéphale pour réaliser un profil d'expression génique. Un premier article de méthodologie a été publié concernant cette technique. Cette procédure menée sur des souris cKO pour Lmx1a et Lmx1b et leurs contrôles associés a permis de mettre en évidence des gènes régulés par Lmx1a et Lmx1b tels que Plxnc1. Plxnc1 est une protéine de guidage axonal ayant pour ligand la sémaphorine 7a (Sema7a). Afin d'observer si la régulation de Plxnc1 par Lmx1a/b est à l'origine du défaut de guidage axonal observé chez les souris cKO pour Lmx1a/b, nous avons réalisé une analyse in vitro de l’effet de la Sema7a sur les axones d'explants mDA. Notre étude a montré un effet chimiorépulsif de la Sema7a pour les axones des neurones mDA exprimant Plxnc1. De plus, l’étude de souris Sema7a KO montre une augmentation de l’innervation DA dans la partie dorsale du striatum, partie exprimant Sema7a chez des souris contrôles. Ce phénotype met en évidence une chimiorépulsion induite par l’interaction Sema7a/Plxnc1. L’étude de souris surexprimant Plxnc1 a, quant à elle, montré une perte d’innervation DA dans la partie dorsale du striatum. En effet, la majorité des cellules du mésencéphale se mettent à exprimer Plxnc1, les rendant ainsi sensibles à la chimiorépulsion induite par Sema7a. L’ensemble de ces résultats met en évidence l’importance de la régulation de la protéine de guidage axonal Plxnc1 par Lmx1a/b pour l'innervation des cibles du mésencéphale. La répression de Plxnc1 dans les neurones dopaminergiques de la substance noire pars compacta (SNpc) semble nécessaire à l’innervation du striatum dorsal riche en Sema7a. Cette étude est la première à identifier les bases moléculaires du guidage axonal expliquant la ségrégation des voies mDA nigrostriée et mésolimbique, et devrait contribuer à améliorer l'efficacité des thérapies cellulaires pour la maladie de Parkinson. Un second article sera soumis prochainement sur le rôle des facteurs de transcription Lmx1a/b dans les neurones dopaminergiques post-mitotiques du mésencéphale. La principale caractéristique histopathologique de la maladie de Parkinson est la dégénérescence des neurones mDA de la SNpc. La thérapie de remplacement cellulaire utilisant des neurones dopaminergiques nouvellement générés à partir de cellules souches représente une thérapie prometteuse. Cependant, la mauvaise innervation des neurones nouvellement greffés limite le succès des études de transplantation. L’identification de facteurs régulant la connectivité des neurones mDA devient primordiale pour élucider les mécanismes impliqués dans la mise en place du système dopaminergique. C'est pourquoi, dans une derniere partie, afin d'illustrer cette possibilité d'amélioration d'une thérapie de remplacement cellulaire, j’ai réalisé l’implantation de cellules souches différenciées en neurones dopaminergiques dans un modèle de souris lésées à la 6-hydroxydopamine (6OHDA). Les cellules nouvellement réimplantées sont de type SNpc, en raison de l'infection par un vecteur viral induisant l'inhibition de l'expression de Plxnc1.Lmx1a and Lmx1b are transcription factors known for their role in the development of midbrain dopamine neurons (mDA). They were shown as essential for each stage of differentiation from progenitors to mature dopaminergic neurons. Recent studies have also highlighted the importance of these two transcription factors in dopaminergic neurons in adult mice. Lmx1a/b are involved in the regulation of mitochondrial genes and in autophagy. Although some evidence suggest that they could be involved in the formation of mDa circuit formation, their role in post-mitotic mDA neurons remains unknown. The aim of this thesis is to elucidate the role of Lmx1a/b in post-mitotic dopaminergic neurons. Analysis of dopaminergic axonal projections of double conditional mutant (cKO) mice for Lmx1a/b showed an axon guidance defect confirming the essential role of these transcription factors in the formation of dopaminergic circuits. In order to precisely identify the molecules involved in the regulation of the dopamine system, suitable techniques must be developed to identify the main genes that are regulated by Lmx1a/b. To this end we developed a new technique allowing gene profiling of brain sub-population. By combining rapid immunolabeling of mDA neurons with laser capture microdissection we manage to extract RNA from two sub-regions of mDA neurons such as ventral tegmental area (VTA) and substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc). The advantage of this technique is to compare quickly the regulation of genes expression by studying controls and mutant mice. A first methodological article has been published regarding this procedure. We then applied this technique on cKO mice for Lmx1a/b and their associated controls to identify genes regulated by Lmx1a and Lmx1b. Among these genes, we identified Plxnc1, an axon guidance receptor for the semaphorin 7a (Sema7a). In order to verify whether the regulation of Plxnc1 by Lmx1a/b is at the origin of the axon guidance defect observed in double conditional mutant for Lmx1a/b, we have made an in vitro analysis of the effect of Sema7a on mDA explants. Our study showed a chemorepulsive effect of Sema7a on Plxnc1 positives axons. In addition, the study of knockout mice for Sema7a shows an increase of DA innervation in the dorsal part of the striatum which is the region expressing Sema7a in control mice. This phenotype reveals a chemorepulsion induced by Sema7a/Plxnc1 interaction. The study of mice overexpressing Plxnc1 shows a loss of DA innervation in the dorsal striatum. Indeed, by overexpressing Plxnc1, the majority of midbrain cells begin to express this axon guidance protein instead of only mDA neurons from the VTA. Thus, all mDA neurons including neurons from the SNpc express Plxnc1 making them sensitive to Sema7a. This interaction Sema7a/Plxnc1 leads to a chemorepulsion of axons guided away from the dorsal striatum. Overall these results highlight the importance of the regulation of the axon guidance protein Plxnc1 by Lmx1a/b for the innervation of midbrain targets. The repression of Plxnc1 expression in dopaminergic neurons of the SNpc appears necessary for the innervation of dopaminergic axons in the dorsal striatum, rich in Sema7a. This study is the first to identify the molecular basis of the development of the dopaminergic system explaining the segregation of the nigrostriatal and mesolimbic pathways. These results should help to improve the effectiveness of cell therapies for Parkinson's disease. A second article will be submitted soon about the role of Lmx1a/b transciption factors in post-mitotic midbrain dopaminergic neurons. The main histopathological feature of Parkinson's disease (PD) is the degeneration of SNpc neurons. The cell replacement therapy using newly generated dopaminergic neurons from stem cells represents a promising therapy. However, a poor innervation of the newly grafted neurons limits the success of transplantation studies. The identification of factors regulating neuronal connectivity of mDA neurons becomes essential to elucidate the mechanisms involved in the establishment of the dopaminergic system. Therefore, in a final section of this thesis, I report preliminary study about cell replacement therapy in PD mouse model. I differentiated DA neurons from stem cells, knock-down Plxnc1 expression and performed grafting in 6-hydroxydopamine (6OHDA) mouse model to illustrate the possibility of improving a cell replacement therapy

Metabolism

Background: Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of deaths in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) patients. Mouse models, while widely used for drug development, do not fully replicate human NASH nor integrate the associated cardiac dysfunction, i.e. heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF). To overcome these limitations, we established a nutritional hamster model developing both NASH and HFpEF. We then evaluated the effects of the dual peroxisome proliferator activated receptor alpha/delta agonist elafibranor developed for the treatment of NASH patients. Methods: Male Golden Syrian hamsters were fed for 10 to 20 weeks with a free choice diet, which presents hamsters with a choice between control chow diet with normal drinking water or a high fat/high cholesterol diet with 10% fructose enriched drinking water. Biochemistry, histology and echocardiography analysis were performed to characterize NASH and HFpEF. Once the model was validated, elafibranor was evaluated at 15 mg/kg/day orally QD for 5 weeks. Results: Hamsters fed a free choice diet for up to 20 weeks developed NASH, including hepatocyte ballooning (as confirmed with cytokeratin-18 immunostaining), bridging fibrosis, and a severe diastolic dysfunction with restrictive profile, but preserved ejection fraction. Elafibranor resolved NASH, with significant reduction in ballooning and fibrosis scores, and improved diastolic dysfunction with significant reduction in E/A and E/E' ratios. Conclusion: Our data demonstrate that the free choice diet induced NASH hamster model replicates the human phenotype and will be useful for validating novel drug candidates for the treatment of NASH and associated HfpEF

The Morphological and Molecular Changes of Brain Cells Exposed to Direct Current Electric Field Stimulation

Background: The application of low-intensity direct current electric fields has been experimentally used in the clinic to treat a number of brain disorders, predominantly using transcranial direct current stimulation approaches. However, the cellular and molecular changes induced by such treatment remain largely unknown. Methods: Here, we tested various intensities of direct current electric fields (0, 25, 50, and 100V/m) in a well-controlled in vitro environment in order to investigate the responses of neurons, microglia, and astrocytes to this type of stimulation. This included morphological assessments of the cells, viability, as well as shape and fiber outgrowth relative to the orientation of the direct current electric field. We also undertook enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and western immunoblotting to identify which molecular pathways were affected by direct current electric fields. Results: In response to direct current electric field, neurons developed an elongated cell body shape with neurite outgrowth that was associated with a significant increase in growth associated protein-43. Fetal midbrain dopaminergic explants grown in a collagen gel matrix also showed a reorientation of their neurites towards the cathode. BV2 microglial cells adopted distinct morphological changes with an increase in cyclooxygenase-2 expression, but these were dependent on whether they had already been activated with lipopolysaccharide. Finally, astrocytes displayed elongated cell bodies with cellular filopodia that were oriented perpendicularly to the direct current electric field. Conclusion: We show that cells of the central nervous system can respond to direct current electric fields both in terms of their morphological shape and molecular expression of certain proteins, and this in turn can help us to begin understand the mechanisms underlying the clinical benefits of direct current electric field

Pharmacological Transdifferentiation of Human Nasal Olfactory Stem Cells into Dopaminergic Neurons

International audienc

Transcriptional repression of Plxnc1 by Lmx1a and Lmx1b directs topographic dopaminergic circuit formation

Mesodiencephalic dopamine neurons play central roles in the regulation of a wide range of brain functions, including voluntary movement and behavioral processes. These functions are served by distinct subtypes of mesodiencephalic dopamine neurons located in the substantia nigra pars compacta and the ventral tegmental area, which form the nigrostriatal, mesolimbic, and mesocortical pathways. Until now, mechanisms involved in dopaminergic circuit formation remained largely unknown. Here, we show that Lmx1a, Lmx1b, and Otx2 transcription factors control subtype-specific mesodiencephalic dopamine neurons and their appropriate axon innervation. Our results revealed that the expression of Plxnc1, an axon guidance receptor, is repressed by Lmx1a/b and enhanced by Otx2. We also found that Sema7a/Plxnc1 interactions are responsible for the segregation of nigrostriatal and mesolimbic dopaminergic pathways. These findings identify Lmx1a/b, Otx2, and Plxnc1 as determinants of dopaminergic circuit formation and should assist in engineering mesodiencephalic dopamine neurons capable of regenerating appropriate connections for cell therapy

Transcriptional repression of Plxnc1 by Lmx1a and Lmx1b directs topographic dopaminergic circuit formation

Mesodiencephalic dopamine neurons play central roles in the regulation of a wide range of brain functions, including voluntary movement and behavioral processes. These functions are served by distinct subtypes of mesodiencephalic dopamine neurons located in the substantia nigra pars compacta and the ventral tegmental area, which form the nigrostriatal, mesolimbic, and mesocortical pathways. Until now, mechanisms involved in dopaminergic circuit formation remained largely unknown. Here, we show that Lmx1a, Lmx1b, and Otx2 transcription factors control subtype-specific mesodiencephalic dopamine neurons and their appropriate axon innervation. Our results revealed that the expression of Plxnc1, an axon guidance receptor, is repressed by Lmx1a/b and enhanced by Otx2. We also found that Sema7a/Plxnc1 interactions are responsible for the segregation of nigrostriatal and mesolimbic dopaminergic pathways. These findings identify Lmx1a/b, Otx2, and Plxnc1 as determinants of dopaminergic circuit formation and should assist in engineering mesodiencephalic dopamine neurons capable of regenerating appropriate connections for cell therapy

Lmx1a and Lmx1b regulate mitochondrial functions and survival of adult midbrain dopaminergic neurons

The LIM-homeodomain transcription factors Lmx1a and Lmx1b play critical roles during the development of midbrain dopaminergic progenitors, but their functions in the adult brain remain poorly understood. We show here that sustained expression of Lmx1a and Lmx1b is required for the survival of adult midbrain dopaminergic neurons. Strikingly, inactivation of Lmx1a and Lmx1b recreates cellular features observed in Parkinson's disease. We found that Lmx1a/b control the expression of key genes involved in mitochondrial functions, and their ablation results in impaired respiratory chain activity, increased oxidative stress, and mitochondrial DNA damage. Lmx1a/b deficiency caused axonal pathology characterized by α-synuclein(+) inclusions, followed by a progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons. These results reveal the key role of these transcription factors beyond the early developmental stages and provide mechanistic links between mitochondrial dysfunctions, α-synuclein aggregation, and the survival of dopaminergic neurons

Diet-Induced Obesity and NASH Impair Disease Recovery in SARS-CoV-2-Infected Golden Hamsters

International audienceObese patients with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) are prone to severe forms of COVID-19. There is an urgent need for new treatments that lower the severity of COVID-19 in this vulnerable population. To better replicate the human context, we set up a diet-induced model of obesity associated with dyslipidemia and NASH in the golden hamster (known to be a relevant preclinical model of COVID-19). A 20-week, free-choice diet induces obesity, dyslipidemia, and NASH (liver inflammation and fibrosis) in golden hamsters. Obese NASH hamsters have higher blood and pulmonary levels of inflammatory cytokines. In the early stages of a SARS-CoV-2 infection, the lung viral load and inflammation levels were similar in lean hamsters and obese NASH hamsters. However, obese NASH hamsters showed worse recovery (i.e., less resolution of lung inflammation 10 days post-infection (dpi) and lower body weight recovery on dpi 25). Obese NASH hamsters also exhibited higher levels of pulmonary fibrosis on dpi 25. Unlike lean animals, obese NASH hamsters infected with SARS-CoV-2 presented long-lasting dyslipidemia and systemic inflammation. Relative to lean controls, obese NASH hamsters had lower serum levels of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 activity and higher serum levels of angiotensin II—a component known to favor inflammation and fibrosis. Even though the SARS-CoV-2 infection resulted in early weight loss and incomplete body weight recovery, obese NASH hamsters showed sustained liver steatosis, inflammation, hepatocyte ballooning, and marked liver fibrosis on dpi 25. We conclude that diet-induced obesity and NASH impair disease recovery in SARS-CoV-2-infected hamsters. This model might be of value for characterizing the pathophysiologic mechanisms of COVID-19 and evaluating the efficacy of treatments for the severe forms of COVID-19 observed in obese patients with NASH