Size Doesn't Matter: Towards a More Inclusive Philosophy of Biology

notes: As the primary author, O’Malley drafted the paper, and gathered and analysed data (scientific papers and talks). Conceptual analysis was conducted by both authors.publication-status: Publishedtypes: ArticlePhilosophers of biology, along with everyone else, generally perceive life to fall into two broad categories, the microbes and macrobes, and then pay most of their attention to the latter. ‘Macrobe’ is the word we propose for larger life forms, and we use it as part of an argument for microbial equality. We suggest that taking more notice of microbes – the dominant life form on the planet, both now and throughout evolutionary history – will transform some of the philosophy of biology’s standard ideas on ontology, evolution, taxonomy and biodiversity. We set out a number of recent developments in microbiology – including biofilm formation, chemotaxis, quorum sensing and gene transfer – that highlight microbial capacities for cooperation and communication and break down conventional thinking that microbes are solely or primarily single-celled organisms. These insights also bring new perspectives to the levels of selection debate, as well as to discussions of the evolution and nature of multicellularity, and to neo-Darwinian understandings of evolutionary mechanisms. We show how these revisions lead to further complications for microbial classification and the philosophies of systematics and biodiversity. Incorporating microbial insights into the philosophy of biology will challenge many of its assumptions, but also give greater scope and depth to its investigations

Sugarcane leaf area index modeling under different soil water conditions Modelagem do índice de área foliar em cana-de-açúcar sob diferentes condições hídricas do solo

The knowledge of the Leaf Area Index (LAI) variation during the whole crop cycle is essential to the modeling of the plant growth and development and, consequently, of the crop yield. Sugarcane LAI evolution models were developed for different crop cycles, by adjusting observed LAI values and growing degree-days summation data on a power-exponential function. The resultant equations simulate adequately the LAI behavior during the entire crop cycle. The effect of different water stress levels was calculated in different growth periods, upon the LAI growth The LAI growth deficit was correlated with the ratio between actual evapotranspiration and máximum evapotranspiration, and a constant named kuu was obtained hi each situation. It was noticed that the kLAI must be estimated not Just for different growth periods, but also for different water stress levels in each growth period.<br>O conhecimento da variação do índice de Área Foliar (IAF) durante todo o ciclo da cultura é essencial para que se possa modelar o crescimento e o desenvolvimento das plantas e, em conseqüência, a produtividade da cultura. Desenvolveu-se neste trabalho modelos de estimativa de IAF da cultura da cana-de-açúcar para os diferentes ciclos de cultivo, a partir do ajuste de valores medidos de IAF e dados de somatório de graus-dia corrigido pelo comprimento do dia a urna função do tipo exponencial-potencial. As equações obtidas modelam adequadamente a variação do IAF durante todo o ciclo. Foi também calculado o efeito de diferentes níveis de déficit hídrico e em diferentes estádios fenológicos, sobre o crescimento do IAF. Correlacionou-se o déficit de crescimento de IAF com a relação entre a evapotranspiracão real e evapotranspiração máxima da cultura e obteve-se, em cada situação, uma constante chamada aquí de kIAF. Em face dos resultados conclui-se que kIAF deve ser estimado não só para diferentes estádios fenológicos mas também para diferentes níveis de déficit hídrico em cada estádio

Creation of transgenic Brassica napus L. Plants expressing human alpha 2b interferon gene

Spring rapeseed transgenic lines expressing human interferon alpha 2b were created by Agrobacteriummediated transformation of aseptic plant leaf explants. The maximum antiviral activity of the leaf extracts reached 4500 IU/g fresh weight. It was determined that the antioxidant activity and the activity of an enzyme of plant antioxidant system – superoxide dismutase (SOD) – in the leaf tissues of transgenic plants increased compared to controls. There were no correlations between the interferon and antioxidant activities, as well as between SOD and interferon activities. Using the obtained transgenic rapeseed plants with high interferon and antioxidant activities as a feed additive for animals might have preventive effect on their body, increasing resistance to infections of various origins.Методом агробактериальной трансформации листовых эксплантов асептических растений ярового рапса получены линии, экспрессирующие альфа 2b интерферон человека. Максимальная противо-вирусная активность экстрактов листьев достигала 4500 МЕ/сырого веса. Установлено, что антиоксидантная активность и активность одного из ферментов антиоксидантной системы растений – супероксиддисмутазы (СОД) – в тканях листьев трансгенных растений повышена по сравнению с контрольными. Не выявлено корреляции как между активностью интерферона и антиоксидантной активностью, так и между активностью интерферона и активностью СОД. Использование полученных трансгенных растений рапса с высокой активностью интерферона и повышенной антиоксидантной активностью как добавки к кормам животных могло бы оказывать профилактическое влияние на их организм, повышая устойчивость к различным инфекциям.Методом агробактеріальної трансформації листових експлантів асептичних рослин ярого ріпака отримано лінії, що експресують альфа 2b інтерферон людини. Максимальна противірусна активність екстрактів листків сягала 4500 МО/сирої ваги. Встановлено, що антиоксидантна активність і активність одного з ферментів антиоксидантної системи рослин – супероксиддисмутази (СОД) – в тканинах листків трансгенних рослин підвищена в порівнянні з контрольними. Не виявлено кореляції ні між активністю інтерферона і антиоксидантною активністю, ні між активністю інтерферона і активністю СОД. Використання отриманих трансгенних рослин ріпака з високою активністю інтерферона та підвищеною антиоксидантною активністю як добавки до кормів тварин мало б профілактично впливати на їхній організм, підвищуючи стійкість до інфекцій різного походження