Environmental incomes and rural livelihoods : a global-comparative assessment

Various case studies have suggested that environmental incomes from forests and other vegetation types are important for rural households in developing countries. However, in most large-scale household surveys these income sources are either underreported or ignored, hence there has been a lack of evidence to support the wider applicability of that claim. This paper reports data from the Poverty Environment Network (PEN), which has gathered comparable income data from about 8,000 households in 360 villages and 58 sites, spread over 24 developing countries. The data collection involved a careful, quarterly recording of all forest and environmental uses, as well as other major income sources over one full year. We find that forest income on average constitutes about one fifth of total household income, while adding other environmental income brings the share to more than one fourth – about the same as incomes from growing crops. Environmental resources and agricultural crops are the two main sources of livelihoods in the survey sites. As expected, forest reliance (share of forest income in total household income) is higher for the poorer income quintiles, but the differences are less pronounced than what was found in most previous studies. We also find that safety net and seasonal gap-filling functions may be less important that often assumed. Ignoring environmental incomes in income surveys and in rural development planning would in quantitative terms amount to ignoring that farmers grow crops. Agricultural area expansion into forests and other vegetation types may well come to increase household incomes, but corresponding income losses from losing forest cover and forest degradation could be larger than previously assumed. Depriving poor people of access to forest product extraction, for instance through highly exclusionary conservation policies, could jeopardize the livelihoods of people depending on these resources

A dual-track transition to global carbon pricing

Unilateral climate policies have been unable to achieve intended emissions reductions. We argue that international harmonization of climate policy beyond the Paris Agreement is the only way forward and that global carbon pricing, either through a tax or market, is the best available instrument to manage this. A foundation has already been laid, as current carbon pricing initiatives cover about 20% of global CO2 emissions. Since it limits free-riding by countries/jurisdictions, global carbon pricing is, in principle, behaviourally easier to negotiate than other instruments, such as emission targets or technical standards

Deforestation: Correlations, Possible Causes and Some Implications

Changes in national forest areas during 1990-2000 are contrasted with other variables to illustrate correlations and provoke discussion about possible causes. Twenty-five statistically-significant correlations (including rural population, life expectancy, GDP, literacy, commerce, agriculture, poverty and inflation) are illustrated and a statistical model suggests that good governance, alternative employment opportunities, and payments for environmental services may be effective in combating deforestation. The data suggest that a global forest convention may need to be supported by substantial and carefully-targeted development assistance to foster good governance

Parallel tracks towards a global treaty on carbon pricing

We argue that a global carbon price is the only way to effectively tackle free riding in international climate policy, required to substantially reduce greenhouse gas emissions. We briefly review the main reasons behind the essential role of carbon pricing, address common misunderstandings and scepticism, and identify key complementary policy instruments. Negotiating global carbon pricing is argued to be much easier than negotiating binding country-level targets, especially if it includes equitable revenue recycling. Moreover, a global carbon price can be more readily adapted to new data and insights of climate science. We propose a political strategy towards a global carbon price that consists of two tracks. The first entails assembly of a carbon-pricing club, a specific case of a climate club, to gradually move towards a full participatory agreement on carbon pricing. The second track involves putting time and energy into re-focusing UNFCCC negotiations on a carbon-pricing agreement. The two tracks reinforce one another, increasing the likelihood of a successful outcome

Domesticating forests : how farmers manage forest resources

Local people in South-east Asia are often cited as skilled forest managers. It is barely acknowledged that an essential part of this forest management does not concern natural forests, but forests that have been planted, often after the removal of pre-existing natural forests; forests that are cultivated not by professional foresters, but by sedentary or swidden farmers, on their farmlands; forests that are based not on exotic, fast-growing trees, but on local tree species, and harbour an incredible variety of plant and animal species. This book concentrates on forest cultivation by smallholder farmers in South-east Asia, not only because it constitutes altogether the most original and lesser known aspect of local forest management in the region, but also because, it represents the most promising field for the design of alternative strategies for the management of forest resources and forest lands. Natural forests are still present and actively managed in the region. So, why do people cut natural forests to replant the same species of forest trees they have just chopped down? Why have professional foresters, or the decision-makers in forest management, never seriously considered these examples of indigenous forest culture, however sustainable and profitable they may be? Many elements of the answer to these questions are given in this book, which is built on the conclusions of 10 years of multidisciplinary research and analysis on these systems. It shows how forest culture by farmers constitutes a strategy that questions the practical, conceptual and legal aspects of conventional forest management. It speaks for more scientific and political support to these systems, because they are altogether neglected, endangered and full of potential. Further it explains a why it is important to consider these examples as interesting alternative models to either forest extraction or specialized forest plantations, especially in the present context of depletion of natural forests all over the planet. Can the transfer of these original examples to other parts of the world be achieved? How can it be successful? This book helps to answer these important questions

A dual-track transition to global carbon pricing: the glass is half full

We appreciate the response by Erik Haites (2020) to our paper (van den Bergh et al., 2020a), not only because it is well-informed and contains many subtle remarks, but also because our article was aimed at stimulating debate on how to achieve effective climate policies that limit global warming change to 1.5-2°C. There is no question that the latter represents a tremendous challenge for the global community, and our dual-track proposal is intended to provide a workable approach to it by addressing the free-riding problem through policy harmonization. Although we feel that Haites raises many relevant points regarding the difficulties of carrying out the proposal, most of these were, in fact, already addressed by our paper (...