An Evaluation of Sex Offender Residency Restrictions in Michigan and Missouri

In Michigan, sex offenders are prohibited from living within 1,000 feet of school property and 500 feet from any licensed daycare center. Missouri prohibits sex offenders from living within 1,000 feet of a public or private school up to the 12th grade or childcare facility which existed at the time the offender established his/her residency. In addition, sex offenders are prohibited from working or loitering within 500 feet of a school, childcare facility, or public park with playground equipment or a public swimming pool. Residency restriction policies in both States are universally applied to all registered sex offenders. The current study had three primary goals. First, document the residency locations of sex offenders and non-sex offenders before and after the implementation of the residency restriction laws. Second, examine the change in recidivism patterns before and after the implementation of residency restrictions. Third, describe the collateral consequences of residency restrictions. The study found a decline in the number of registered sex offenders living in restricted areas, including near schools or daycare centers, but the differences were not statistically significant. The study also determined that sex offenders, especially child molesters, moved more often relative to comparable non-sex offenders after the implementation of residency restrictions; those living at addresses within the boundary zones surrounding schools and daycare centers tended to live in more disadvantaged areas. Regarding the impact of residency restrictions on recidivism, the relationship was small. The study recommends reconsidering the universal application of sex offender residency restrictions, an increase in housing services for sex offenders, and the development of reentry programming specific to sex offender populations. 22 tables and 139 reference

Nicarbazin OvoControl G Bait Reduces Hatchability of Eggs Laid by Resident Canada Geese in Oregon

Expanding populations of resident Canada geese (Branta canadensis) are resulting in increased conflicts with humans. Nonlethal and humane means are needed for managing Canada goose flocks at a variety of sites, including golf courses, industrial parks, government sites, and city parks. Decreased egg production and hatching are side effects of nicarbazin, a veterinary drug used to treat coccidiosis in chickens. Capitalizing on these effects, we developed nicarbazin as a reproductive inhibitor for Canada geese and conducted a field efficacy study. We recruited study sites in 2002 and 2003. Following laboratory testing, we conducted a field efficacy trial of nicarbazin for reducing the hatchability of Canada goose eggs in spring 2004 in Oregon, USA. The study began in February 2004 at 10 sites in Oregon, with 2 control and 3 treated sites on each side of the Cascades. We fed bait daily to resident Canada geese for approximately 6 weeks. We located and monitored nests until hatching or ≥5 days beyond the expected hatching date to determine hatchability. We completed data collection in May 2004. Geese consumed 8,000 kg of bait, with 5,100 kg of OvoControl G* (Innolytics, LLC, Rancho Santa Fe, CA) 2,500-ppm nicarbazin bait consumed among 6 treated sites and 2,900 kg of untreated bait consumed among 4 control sites. We monitored 63 nests at treated sites and 46 nests at control sites to determine hatching success of eggs. There was a 62% reduction in the percentage of nests with 100% hatchability at treated sites as compared to controls. There was a 93% increase in the percentage of nests at treated sites with 0% hatchability as compared to nests with no eggs hatching at control sites. Hatchability from treated sites versus control sites was reduced 36%(F=5.72, P=0.0622). We submitted results from this study to support Environmental Protection Agency registration of nicarbazin as a reproductive inhibitor for use in Canada geese. We have shown that treatment of resident Canada geese with OvoControl G 2,500-ppm nicarbazin bait by licensed, trained applicators immediately prior to and during the breeding season can reduce hatchability of eggs laid by treated geese, thereby reducing recruitment of goslings into problem resident Canada goose populations. ( JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT 71(1):135–143; 2007

Development of Diazacon™ as an Avian Contraceptive

Due to increasing human-wildlife conflicts with birds and growing opposition to lethal techniques, nonlethal methods need to be developed to help manage bird populations. DiazaCon™ is a promising oral contraceptive that acts by directly inhibiting the conversion of desmosterol to cholesterol. Because cholesterol is essential for the production of the steroid reproductive hormones testosterone, progesterone, and estradiol, DiazaCon™ also indirectly inhibits the formation of these hormones. These hormones are essential for sperm and egg production, and the production of egg yolk precursors in the liver. Because DiazaCon™ is cleared slowly from the liver, its contraceptive effects are long-lasting. Initial research with Coturnix quail (Coturnix coturnix) helped determine DiazaCon’s mechanism of action. Further research showed efficacy in monk parakeets (Myiopsitta monachus) and mallards (Anas platyrhynchos). Brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater), American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos) and ring-necked doves (Streptopelia risoria) were also studied as potential candidates for DiazaCon™ contraception. Mallards and ring-necked doves were used as model species for Canada geese (Branta canadensis) and pigeons (Columba livia), respectively. DiazaCon™ application over a very short time results in long-lasting contraceptive effects, an advantage for target species, but a disadvantage for nontarget species. Care must be taken when delivering DiazaCon™ to determine what nontargets are present and how best to avoid them. Timing of delivery is also critical to ensure maximal reproductive effects, and information on the reproductive cycles of the species of interest is needed

Development of Nicarbazin as a Reproductive Inhibitor for Resident Canada Geese

Expanding populations of resident Canada geese that remain in suburban and urban areas year-round often result in increased conflicts with humans. Non-lethal and humane means are needed for managing the size of Canada goose flocks residing near or on airports, golf courses, industrial parks, government sites, and city parks. A side effect of nicarbazin, a veterinary drug used to control coccidiosis in chickens, is decreased egg production and hatching. Exploiting this side effect, studies of nicarbazin for reducing the hatchability of eggs from Canada geese were conducted. An initial study in Coturnix quail verified reduction in hatchability in a species other than chickens. Because plasma nicarbazin was not routinely measured, a study in chickens was conducted to determine the relationship between plasma and egg nicarbazin. A comparative study in chickens, mallards, and Canada geese showed that nicarbazin absorption was lowest in geese. Studies in both penned and wild Canada geese showed that reduction in hatchability was possible but neither study used bait suitable for general field application. Bait development led to the OvoControl-G® (Innolytics LLC) bait, which resulted in reduction in hatchability of 51% at treated sites compared to control sites in the field. Previous studies showed that nicarbazin is practically non-toxic and is environmentally friendly; timing and management of baiting will minimize non-target hazards. OvoControl-G® 2500 ppm nicarbazin bait is recommended for incorporation into a comprehensive management plan as a reproductive inhibitor for use in controlling resident Canada goose flock sizes

PZP Immunocontraception in Coyotes: A Multi-Year Study with Three Vaccine Formulations

The use of poisons for coyote control is controversial because of public opposition to lethal control of pest animals and the perceived environmental risks of pesticide use. The development of immunocontraception for population control of coyotes could result in a more acceptable alternative to poisons. Immunocontraception using porcine zona pellucida (PZP) would allow normal estrus in the female and therefore normal male-female pair-bonding. Coyotes are mon-estrus, therefore PZP contraception during the breeding season of February and March could provide year-round protection. This paper reviews 9 years of research on PZP immunocontraception, starting from a multi-shot PZP vaccine using Freund’s adjuvant, to the development and testing of two single-shot preparations combined with a newly developed adjuvant (AdjuVac™). We provide insights into the false assumption that one contraceptive vaccine fits all species and situations

PZP Immunocontraception in Coyotes: A Multi-Year Study with Three Vaccine Formulations

The use of poisons for coyote control is controversial because of public opposition to lethal control of pest animals and the perceived environmental risks of pesticide use. The development of immunocontraception for population control of coyotes could result in a more acceptable alternative to poisons. Immunocontraception using porcine zona pellucida (PZP) would allow normal estrus in the female and therefore normal male-female pair-bonding. Coyotes are mon-estrus, therefore PZP contraception during the breeding season of February and March could provide year-round protection. This paper reviews 9 years of research on PZP immunocontraception, starting from a multi-shot PZP vaccine using Freund’s adjuvant, to the development and testing of two single-shot preparations combined with a newly developed adjuvant (AdjuVac™). We provide insights into the false assumption that one contraceptive vaccine fits all species and situations

20,25-Diazacholesterol as an oral contraceptive for black-tailed prairie dog population management

Black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicionus) colonies can become overcrowded, and the colonies, landscape, and people affected by them may benefit from controlled populations. Contraception is a method that may be useful, particularly where lethal control is inappropriate or illegal. We investigated if oral administration of 20,25-diazacholesterol (DiazaCon®)n, inhibitor of cholesterol and reproductive steroid hormone production, could reduce reproductive success of treated black-tailed prairie dogs in a field trial. Ten treatments of approximately 45-mg DiazaCon per black-tailed prairie dog yielded a 47% reduction of young:adult ratios compared to control sites. Over a 3-month period, desmosterol, a cholesterol precursor used as an indicator of DiazaCon effects, was not detectable in any black-tailed prairie dogs trapped at control sites, whereas elevated levels were detectable in 33 of 35 blood samples from black-tailed prairie dogs trapped at treated sites. Average cholesterol levels were lower in treated animals than in control animals. DiazaCon administration may be a useful tool to control populations of black-tailed prairie dogs, especially in light of the desire for conservation while still managing populations

GnRH Single-Injection Immunocontraception of Black-Tailed Deer

High deer densities increase vehicle collisions, damage agricultural crops, and amplify the spread of zoonotic and animal diseases, intensifying human-deer conflict. In addition, deer impact on forest vegetation can influence the distribution and abundance of other wildlife species. Greater demand for non-lethal means of animal damage control has led to an interest in contraception as a wildlife management tool. The development of a single-injection Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) contraceptive vaccine by NWRC reduces logistical limitations and cost of using immunocontraception as compared to a vaccine that requires two injections. This study assessed the efficacy of two different GnRH-KLH (keyhole limpet hemocyanin) vaccine designs in a single-injection study, to determine if Mycobacterium avium bacterium in the adjuvant is necessary for the success of a single-injection contraceptive vaccine. Forty-two captive female black-tailed deer were divided into 3 groups. Control deer were injected with saline solution, one treatment group received GonaCon™ (a GnRH-KLH vaccine paired with AdjuVac™ adjuvant that contains a small quantity of killed M. avium bacterium), and the second treatment group received GnRH-KLH vaccine with DEAE-Dextran/oil as the adjuvant. Contraceptive success was evaluated by monitoring progesterone, pregnancy specific protein, antibodies to GnRH-KLH conjugate and to Johne’s bacterium (M. avium), and actual pregnancy rates. Pregnancy rates were significantly different based on treatment (X² = 9.389; df = 2; P = 0.009). Pregnancy rates in deer treated with GonaCon™ were significantly reduced as compared to saline controls (P = 0.006), but there was no significant difference between GnRH-DD compared to saline (P = 0.297). Significant difference was found between GonaCon™ and GnRH-DD (P = 0.055). Results suggest that M. avium in the AdjuVac™ adjuvant is essential for the success of the single-injection GnRH vaccine GonaCon™. The development of a single-injection vaccine will increase the practicality and lower the cost of using immunocontraception as a tool to control deer populations

GnRH Single-Injection Immunocontraception of Black-Tailed Deer

High deer densities increase vehicle collisions, damage agricultural crops, and amplify the spread of zoonotic and animal diseases, intensifying human-deer conflict. In addition, deer impact on forest vegetation can influence the distribution and abundance of other wildlife species. Greater demand for non-lethal means of animal damage control has led to an interest in contraception as a wildlife management tool. The development of a single-injection Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) contraceptive vaccine by NWRC reduces logistical limitations and cost of using immunocontraception as compared to a vaccine that requires two injections. This study assessed the efficacy of two different GnRH-KLH (keyhole limpet hemocyanin) vaccine designs in a single-injection study, to determine if Mycobacterium avium bacterium in the adjuvant is necessary for the success of a single-injection contraceptive vaccine. Forty-two captive female black-tailed deer were divided into 3 groups. Control deer were injected with saline solution, one treatment group received GonaCon™ (a GnRH-KLH vaccine paired with AdjuVac™ adjuvant that contains a small quantity of killed M. avium bacterium), and the second treatment group received GnRH-KLH vaccine with DEAE-Dextran/oil as the adjuvant. Contraceptive success was evaluated by monitoring progesterone, pregnancy specific protein, antibodies to GnRH-KLH conjugate and to Johne’s bacterium (M. avium), and actual pregnancy rates. Pregnancy rates were significantly different based on treatment (X² = 9.389; df = 2; P = 0.009). Pregnancy rates in deer treated with GonaCon™ were significantly reduced as compared to saline controls (P = 0.006), but there was no significant difference between GnRH-DD compared to saline (P = 0.297). Significant difference was found between GonaCon™ and GnRH-DD (P = 0.055). Results suggest that M. avium in the AdjuVac™ adjuvant is essential for the success of the single-injection GnRH vaccine GonaCon™. The development of a single-injection vaccine will increase the practicality and lower the cost of using immunocontraception as a tool to control deer populations

When, Where and for What Wildlife Species Will Contraception Be a Useful Management Approach?

Despite the fact that many wildlife species have become overabundant both in North America and other parts of the world, the public is increasingly unwilling to manage wildlife populations with traditional techniques such as trapping or lethal methods. A growing segment of the public is urging the use of contraceptives to reduce populations of overabundant free-ranging wildlife. In spite of public pressure, the development and use of wildlife fertility control techniques has been slow to occur, partially because of the difficulty in developing efficient, cost-effective methods, and partially because of misconceptions about these potential techniques. The regulatory authority for contraceptives has recently been moved from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA); the extensive EPA registration process is both rigorous and costly. Only one wildlife contraceptive is currently registered and available: the National Wildlife Research Center (NWRC) worked to develop a product for reducing the hatchability of Canada goose eggs in cooperation with Innolytics, LLC, who holds the registration for OvoControl® G. Development is continuing for additional experimental products. Another product developed by the NWRC, the single-shot GonaCon™ Immunocontraceptive Vaccine is poised to begin the registration process. A third product, DiazaCon™, will be soon tested for field efficacy and should begin the registration process within the year. No single wildlife contraceptive technique would be applicable for use in all wildlife species and for all management situations for a particular species. Differences in animal physiology and behavior, as well as differences in the ecology of the damage, affect which contraceptives will be most effective. Therefore, contraceptives with different modes of action will need to be developed for different species and uses. Wildlife contraceptives will not replace other management tools and will probably have a limited use, primarily in urban/suburban areas. In most species, wildlife contraceptives will not rapidly reduce populations. Populations of short-lived species such as rodents could be rapidly reduced with contraceptives; however, in long-lived species such as deer and horses, it would take years to reduce populations with fertility control alone, and damage caused by those species will continue to occur. This manuscript will discuss what contraceptive techniques are being developed by the USDA Wildlife Services NWRC, and when, where, and for what species they may be applicable