Agricultural investments in the communal areas of the Eastern Cape: The impacts of joint ventures on livelihoods and land rights

Philosophiae Doctor - PhDA major and unresolved challenge facing South Africa’s post-apartheid government, is how best to overcome the historical injustices of land dispossession and the resultant poverty now found in the communal areas of the former 'homelands'. In line with the South African government’s hybrid of neo-liberal and social welfare approaches to development, one important strategy for addressing these challenges has so far been the promotion of inclusive business models such as joint ventures (JVs), especially in the context of land restitution claims, but also in communal areas. This study explores the impacts of the JV model on livelihoods and land rights and use, and engages with key debates regarding the dynamics of class formation in the former 'homelands' of South Africa. The study undertakes a comparative analysis of two Joint Venture (JV) dairy farms, involving the same agribusiness partner, Amadlelo Agri. The farms are located on irrigation schemes in the former Ciskei of South Africa’s Eastern Cape Province. The JVs involve residents from the rural settlements of Keiskammahoek and Shiloh, as both landowners and workers. The comparative case study presented here illustrates quite divergent outcomes when the same JV model is implemented in different rural settlements, most powerfully because of differences in the class structure of each settlement. Class analysis helps to explain the more intense intragroup conflicts that have emerged around the JV in Shiloh. Intragroup dynamics and conflicts, which have historical roots extending beyond the implementation of the JV intervention, are also critical to understanding divergent outcomes. A class-analytic approach assists in understanding the tensions that the JV model of capitalist farming generates in relation to household reproduction, in a class-differentiated manner. The sole focus in much of the literature on agricultural investments has been on relationships between agribusiness, and what are too often portrayed as homogenous 'communities’. However, this thesis illustrates that this approach is misleading when applied to analysis of the real politics on the ground. Struggles over jobs, dividends and land take place within highly differentiated communities. Investigating the inter- and intra-household distribution of JV benefits and risks is central to understanding the impacts of the JV on livelihoods and incomes, and also the emerging contentions and conflicts. To this end, I explore how class interacts with other aspects of social difference, particularly gender, kinship, ethnicity, race, generation and religious affiliation. A class-analytic approach is significant because it illuminates the emerging agrarian class structure that a JV-type intervention both reflects and in turn conditions, in dialectical fashion. It thus allows exploration of the implications of the JV model for wider processes of agrarian change in South Africa. Although there is evidence of livelihood benefits being derived by some households, as well as limited opportunities for accumulation, the JV model does not appear to stimulate the emergence of a class of productive black farmers. Significantly, the study could not identify any households as 'middle farmers', reliant on 'accumulation from below', which many authors consider to be a more progressive, dynamic and desirable pathway of agrarian reform. The JV model is at risk of equating ‘black emerging farmers’ with a group of customary landowners, who are in reality workers and 'passive recipients' of JV dividends and land rents

Municipal case study: Greater Tzaneen Local Municipality, Limpopo

The report provides a way forward for implementing a labour-intensive small-scale farming approach to land redistribution in the Greater Tzaneen Local Municipality (GTM) 1. The scenario presented in Table 8 of this report, involves redistributing 50% of all farmland in GTM (71 550 hectares) to 2745 small-scale farmers. This approach has the potential to create 31 612 net on-farm jobs, inclusive of 2745 self-employment opportunities for farmers and 825 family members. As Table 7 outlines, this would entail a cost of ZAR 79 787 per net job2 created. In addition, numerous jobs could be created in the value chain up and downstream of farms. The model proposes redistributing 13 145 hectares of existing subtropical fruit, citrus and nut orchards and developing 13 495 hectares of new orchards. It would involve an investment of ZAR 2.52 billion in establishment costs 3. An alternative model is also presented which could keep investment costs lower by developing fewer hectares of fruit and nuts but would also create less jobs. The region’s reputation as one of the leading farming areas for fruit, nuts and fresh produce (vegetables), has proliferated the presence of wage labour opportunities, contract farming and joint ventures (Boche and Anjuere, 2015). The growing population of Tzaneen and the well-established transport system which connects the municipality to nearby towns, cities and national fresh produce markets (NFPMs), presents opportunities for small-scale farmers. There is a vibrant informal value chain, which provides numerous job multipliers for bakkie traders and hawkers. Opportunities also exist to access formal value chains (e.g. supermarkets and processors) and export markets (especially for subtropical fruit). Rather than seeing one market as a panacea for small-scale farmers, this report suggests supporting farmers to access a range of markets, differentiated by the quality of produce

Fresh produce production under irrigation by small-scale farmers in South Africa

This report documents the status of fresh produce production under irrigation by small-scale farmers2 in South Africa and investigates the potential for expanding current levels of production, with an emphasis on land redistribution. Fresh produce includes the cultivation of vegetables and green maize under irrigation. Irrigation includes both formal irrigation schemes as well as systems organised by individual farmers (including rainwater harvesting). This report forms a part of the Capacity Building Programme for Employment Promotion (CBPEP), funded by the European Union and undertaken by the Government Technical Advice Centre (GTAC)

Intersections between COVID-19 and socio-economic mental health stressors in the lives of South African adolescent girls and young women

Background In contexts where poverty and mental health stressors already interact to negatively impact the most vulnerable populations, COVID-19 is likely to have worsened these impacts. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, adolescent girls and young women (AGYW) in South Africa already faced intersecting mental health stressors and vulnerabilities. It is critical to understand how additional challenges brought on by COVID-19 have intersected with existing vulnerabilities and mental health risks AGYW faced, particularly given the intersections between psychological distress and increased risk behaviours that impact sexual and reproductive health. We aimed to examine socio-economic and mental health impacts of COVID-19 on South African AGYW in order to understand how additional challenges brought on by COVID-19 have intersected with existing challenges, compounding AGYW vulnerabilities. Methods Using qualitative and quantitative methods, framed by the syndemic theory, we examined the intersections between mental health and the COVID-19 epidemic amongst AGYW in six districts of South Africa characterised by high rates of HIV, teenage pregnancy and socio-economic hardship. Between November 2020 and March 2021 we conducted a cross-sectional telephone survey with 515 AGYW, and in-depth interviews with 50 AGYW, aged 15 to 24 years. Results Our findings reveal how COVID-19 restrictions led to increased experiences of stress and anxiety. Poor mental health was compounded by strained family relationships, increased fear of domestic violence, household unemployment, economic stress and food insecurity. Respondents described feelings of boredom, frustration, isolation, loneliness, fear and hopelessness. However, despite the multitude of challenges, some AGYW articulated emotional resilience, describing ways in which they coped and retained hope. Conclusion Various psycho-social risk factors already disproportionally affect the mental health of AGYW in these communities; the COVID-19 pandemic intersects with these pre-existing social and environmental factors. Understanding strategies AGYW have used to positively cope with the uncertainty of COVID-19 amongst an array of pre-existing mental health stressors, is key in informing efforts to respond to their needs. Multisectoral interventions are needed to address the drivers of poor mental health among AGYW, and bolster healthy coping mechanisms; interventions seeking to mitigate the mental health impacts on this vulnerable population need to be responsive to the unpredictable pandemic environment

Humoral Dysregulation Associated with Increased Systemic Inflammation among Injection Heroin Users

Injection drug use is a growing major public health concern. Injection drug users (IDUs) have a higher incidence of co-morbidities including HIV, Hepatitis, and other infections. An effective humoral response is critical for optimal homeostasis and protection from infection; however, the impact of injection heroin use on humoral immunity is poorly understood. We hypothesized that IDUs have altered B cell and antibody profiles.A comprehensive systems biology-based cross-sectional assessment of 130 peripheral blood B cell flow cytometry- and plasma- based features was performed on HIV-/Hepatitis C-, active heroin IDUs who participated in a syringe exchange program (n = 19) and healthy control subjects (n = 19). The IDU group had substantial polydrug use, with 89% reporting cocaine injection within the preceding month. IDUs exhibited a significant, 2-fold increase in total B cells compared to healthy subjects, which was associated with increased activated B cell subsets. Although plasma total IgG titers were similar between groups, IDUs had significantly higher IgG3 and IgG4, suggestive of chronic B cell activation. Total IgM was also increased in IDUs, as well as HIV Envelope-specific IgM, suggestive of increased HIV exposure. IDUs exhibited numerous features suggestive of systemic inflammation, including significantly increased plasma sCD40L, TNF-α, TGF-α, IL-8, and ceramide metabolites. Machine learning multivariate analysis distilled a set of 10 features that classified samples based on group with absolute accuracy.These results demonstrate broad alterations in the steady-state humoral profile of IDUs that are associated with increased systemic inflammation. Such dysregulation may impact the ability of IDUs to generate optimal responses to vaccination and infection, or lead to increased risk for inflammation-related co-morbidities, and should be considered when developing immune-based interventions for this growing population

Plasma ceramide profile.

<p>Plasma ceramide species were measured by LC/ESI/MS/MS analysis. (A) Ceramide profiles are shown as a heat map similar to above. Ceramide concentrations were log-transformed prior to computing z-scores. Ceramide profile elements (columns) were not clustered. (B) Select plots of individual ceramide species, each symbol represents an individual subject, red lines indicate mean.</p

Plasma analyte profile.

<p>Plasma cytokines, chemokines and growth factors were measured by Milliplex Immunoassay and LPS was measured by a limulus assay. (A) Analyte profiles are shown as a heat map similar to above. Analyte concentrations were log-transformed prior to computing z-scores. (B) Select plots of individual analytes, each symbol represents an individual subject, the red lines indicate mean.</p

Increased total peripheral blood B cells in IDUs.

<p>PBMC were analyzed by flow cytometry. (<b>A</b>) Representative plots gated on live, CD14-CD3-CD4- lymphocytes, the gate is colored red to highlight the expanded CD19+CD20+ total B cell population in IDUs. (<b>B</b>) Frequency of CD19+ (live, CD14-CD3-CD4-) populations among lymphocytes defined by FSC and SSC, each symbol is an individual subject, the red lines indicate mean. The singular CD19+ population is the combination of both the CD19+CD20low/neg population and the CD19+CD20+ population. Flow cytometry was conducted once per sample.</p

Substance Use Characteristics.

<p>Substance Use Characteristics.</p

Principal component analysis of features identified by machine learning pipeline.

<p>Principal component analysis (PCA) of 19 HCs (black circles) and 19 IDUs (red asterisks) based on ten features from the various assays identified by machine learning (CD19+CD20low/negIgD-CD27-, MIP-1β, gp140 IgM, IgG4, CD19+CD20+, sCD40L, TGF-α, MH: d18:1/16:0, TNF-α and MH: d18:1/22:0). PCA was computed on per-feature z-scores (based on all 38 samples) of log transformed data (except for B cell subset frequencies which were not log-transformed).</p