278 research outputs found
Environmental Enrichment for Primates in Laboratories
Environmental enrichment is a critical component of Refinement, one of the 3Rs underlying humane experimentation on animals. In this paper I discuss why primates housed in laboratories, which often have constraints of space and study protocols, are a special case for enrichment. I outline a framework for categorising the different types of enrichment, using the marmoset as a case study, and summarise the methods used to determine what animals want/prefer. I briefly review the arguments that enrichment does not negatively affect experimental outcomes. Finally I focus on complexity and novelty, choice and control, the underlying features of enrichment that makes it successful, and how combined with a thorough understanding of natural history we can put effective enrichment into practice in laboratories. Throughout the paper I emphasise the need to evaluate enrichment to ensure it is having the desired effect
Primates in laboratories: Standardisation, Harmonisation, Variation and Science
Many animals are bred specifically for use in laboratories; the genetic variation between individuals is minimised, and housing and husbandry is often standardised. The rationale is to decrease the variation of the scientific findings, and allow a reduction in number of animals used, although these relationships are questioned. Non-human primates used in laboratories present a different case; there are genetic differences, and considerable variation in rearing practices, housing, enrichment and training both among, and often within, facilities. The impact of this variation on both welfare and science warrants further investigation
Long-term data on reproductive output and longevity in captive female common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus)
The common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) is widely used in biomedical research, with many housed for breeding purposes world-wide. Significant variation in reproductive output among females has been found compared to other anthropoid primates. The present study explores this reproductive variation, focusing on potential predictors of dam longevity and litter size, as well as changes over time. Back-record analysis was conducted, yielding litter information and reproductive summaries of 360 dams housed at three UK marmoset colonies over four decades (1970s-2000s). Results revealed differences among the colonies, as well as within colonies over decades, suggesting environment may play an important role. Cox proportional hazards regression analyses revealed significant effects of mean litter size and yearly production on dam longevity. Decade, mean inter-birth interval and mean dam weight were found to be significant factors explaining dam longevity when looking at colonies individually. The most commonly recorded cause of death was "poor condition." Linear regression models found that no reproductive variable was useful in explaining mean litter size, except dam weight at conception, data which was only consistently recorded at one colony. While triplets were common at all three colonies, these larger litters were consistently associated with higher infant mortality, despite human intervention to improve survival. This study increases our understanding of marmoset reproduction, and possible improvements to practical aspects of colony management to enhance survival and welfare are discussed. Am. J. Primatol. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc
Is Mixed-Species Living Cognitively Enriching? Enclosure Use and Welfare in Two Captive Groups of Tufted Capuchins (Sapajus apella) and Squirrel Monkeys (Saimiri sciureus)
Non-human primates have complex relationships with conspecifics and also other animals with whom they share their habitat in the wild. Some primates, such as capuchin monkeys (Sapajus apella) and squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus), naturally associate, with the potential to act as both proximate and ultimate influences on each other’s behavior. There are a number of benefits to exhibiting such species in mixed communities in captivity, for instance the increased social complexity provides both environmental and social enrichment and appropriate cognitive challenges, ultimately enhancing their welfare in restricted captive enclosures. Monitoring how these species interact and utilize their available space is important for effective care and management. But despite this connection, there remains relatively little conclusive data on whether mixed groups of captive primates are cognitively enriching. This study examined patterns of space use in two mixed-species groups of Sapajus and Saimiri housed at the Living Links to Human Evolution Research Centre, RZSS Edinburgh Zoo. We predicted that if Sapajus and Saimiri were attracted to the presence of the other species then they would share the same space when in mixed enclosures. The data did not support this prediction. Sapajus showed a preference for central zones, while Saimiri spent more time in their exclusive indoor enclosure and appeared to prefer peripheral zones of their outdoor enclosures and close to doorways leading indoors. We conclude that while housing these species in a mixed exhibit may not be cognitively enriching it does provide appropriate cognitive challenges that can still enhance the welfare of individuals
The effects of complexity, choice and control on the behaviour and the welfare of captive common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus)
There are numerous guidelines recommending that captive primates live in complex environments in which they have the opportunity to make choices and the ability to control aspects of the environment, despite the lack of quantitative evidence to suggest these qualities improve welfare. Complexity, choice and control (the âThree Csâ) are inter-related and therefore it is complicated to separate their effects. The main aim of this thesis was to examine how the âThree Csâ affect welfare, using the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) as a model. Behavioural measures and preference tests were used to determine the impact and significance of the âThree Csâ on welfare. Experimental manipulations were natural (i.e. access to outside runs), or unnatural (e.g. pressing a button to control additional illumination). In a series of different studies, marmosets were moved to larger and more complex enclosures, were allowed to choose between indoor cages and outdoor complex enclosures and were able to control additional white light or coloured lights in their home enclosures. The results of these studies show that appropriate levels of each of the âThree Csâ had a positive influence on the welfare of the marmosets, especially on youngsters. Although having control over light, and increased illumination itself improved welfare, providing a choice of access to outside runs (which were more complex and allowed the marmosets greater control over their activities) resulted in the greatest welfare improvement for marmosets of all ages. Loss of access, or control, did not appear to have a negative impact. The marmosets were housed in pairs or in family groups, in the different studies. A cross-study comparison shows that the composition of the groups affected the behavioural response of adult marmosets to environmental enrichment. Unexpectedly, it was also found that, when housed in standard laboratory conditions, adult marmosets were more relaxed when housed in pairs than when housed with their offspring. A secondary aim of the thesis was to quantify welfare indicators and activity budgets of common marmosets in a range of different social and physical contexts, and to compare this with the behaviour of wild marmosets, to increase our understanding of what is ânormalâ in captive situations. It is concluded that it is critical to sub-divide locomotion and inactivity into different levels to interpret these measures accurately. Levels of calm locomotion increased in enriched environments, while levels of relaxed inactivity and scent marking decreased. A number of recommendations for the care and housing of marmosets are made.EThOS - Electronic Theses Online ServiceGBUnited Kingdo
The influence of facility and home pen design on the welfare of the laboratory-housed dog
We have an ethical and scientific obligation to Refine all aspects of the life of the laboratory-housed dog. Across industry there are many differences amongst facilities, home pen design and husbandry, as well as differences in features of the dogs such as strain, sex and scientific protocols. Understanding how these influence welfare, and hence scientific output is therefore critical. A significant proportion of dogs’ lives are spent in the home pen and as such, the design can have a considerable impact on welfare. Although best practice guidelines exist, there is a paucity of empirical evidence to support the recommended Refinements and uptake varies across industry. In this study, we examine the effect of modern and traditional home pen design, overall facility design, husbandry, history of regulated procedures, strain and sex on welfare-indicating behaviours and mechanical pressure threshold. Six groups of dogs from two facilities (total n=46) were observed in the home pen and tested for mechanical pressure threshold. Dogs which were housed in a purpose-built modern facility or in a modern design home pen showed the fewest behavioural indicators of negative welfare (such as alert or pacing behaviours) and more indicators of positive welfare (such as resting) compared to those in a traditional home pen design or traditional facility. Welfare indicating behaviours did not vary consistently with strain, but male dogs showed more negative welfare indicating behaviours and had greater variation in these behaviours than females. Our findings showed more positive welfare indicating behaviours in dogs with higher mechanical pressure thresholds. We conclude that factors relating to the design of home pens and implementation of Refinements at the facility level have a significant positive impact on the welfare of laboratory-housed dogs, with a potential concomitant impact on scientific endpoints
Interspecific interactions and welfare implications in mixed species communities of capuchin (sapajus apella) and squirrel monkeys (saimiri sciureus) over 3 years
Species have complex relationships with others in the wild, and some such as capuchin (Sapajus apella) and squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) naturally choose to associate with each other. There are a number of benefits of exhibiting such species in correspondingly mixed communities in captivity to enhance welfare through increased social complexity, which is potentially environmentally enriching in restricted captive enclosures. Monitoring the interactions between species is critical, however, particularly when members of one species are considerably larger and potentially more aggressive than the other. We report on the frequency and nature of interspecific interactions between S. apella and S. sciureus during four time periods over 3 years (2008-2010) following the formation of two mixed species groups at the ‘Living Links to Human Evolution' Research Centre in Edinburgh Zoo, Scotland. Both the rate and the distribution of interspecific interactions among aggressive, affiliative and neutral categories of behaviour varied over time (P < 0.05). We predicted that S. apella would engage in more interspecific, particularly aggressive, interactions than S. sciureus than vice versa, as they are the larger, more social species and have a more pugnacious temperament. This was the case overall (P < 0.05), and particularly in 2009 and 2010. We predicted that affiliative interactions would increase over time as the number of youngsters increased and as the youngsters grew up together, establishing equable relationships and "territorial" boundaries. The data did not support this prediction. Both the most affiliative and least aggressive interspecific interactions were observed following internal enclosure refurbishment in 2008 and hence we argue that good enclosure design and husbandry is the most important factor in promoting positive interactions between individuals in mixed species groups. We conclude that long-term monitoring is important, and when combined with appropriate husbandry and enclosure upkeep, the welfare of individuals is enhanced in mixed species groups by the presence of other species
The effect of colour vision status on the detection and selection of fruits by tamarins (Saguinus spp.)
The evolution of trichromatic colour vision by the majority of anthropoid primates has been linked to the efficient detection and selection of food, particularly ripe fruits among leaves in dappled light. Modelling of visual signals has shown that trichromats should be more efficient than dichromats at distinguishing both fruits from leaves and ripe from unripe fruits. This prediction is tested in a controlled captive setting using stimuli recreated from those actually encountered by wild tamarins (Saguinus spp.). Dietary data and reflectance spectra of Abuta fluminum fruits eaten by wild saddleback (Saguinus fuscicollis) and moustached (Saguinus mystax) tamarins and their associated leaves were collected in Peru. A. fluminum leaves, and fruits in three stages of ripeness, were reproduced and presented to captive saddleback and red-bellied tamarins (Saguinus labiatus). Trichromats were quicker to learn the task and were more efficient at selecting ripe fruits than were dichromats. This is the first time that a trichromatic foraging advantage has been demonstrated for monkeys using naturalistic stimuli with the same chromatic properties as those encountered by wild animal
Common Marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) Personality
Increasing evidence suggests that personality structure differs between species, but the evolutionary reasons for this variation are not fully understood. We built on earlier research on New World monkeys to further elucidate the evolution of personality structure in primates. We therefore examined personality in 100 family-reared adult common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) from 3 colonies on a 60-item questionnaire. Principal components analyses revealed 5 domains that were largely similar to those found in a previous study on captive, ex-pet, or formerly laboratory-housed marmosets that were housed in a sanctuary. The interrater reliabilities of domain scores were consistent with the interrater reliabilities of domain scores found in other species, including humans. Four domainsdmdash; conscientiousness, agreeableness, inquisitiveness, and assertiveness-resembled personality domains identified in other nonhuman primates. The remaining domain, patience, was specific to common marmosets. We used linear models to test for sex and age differences in the personality domains. Males were lower than females in patience, and this difference was smaller in older marmosets. Older marmosets were lower in inquisitiveness. Finally, older males and younger females had higher scores in agreeableness than younger males and older females. These findings suggest that cooperative breeding may have promoted the evolution of social cognition and influenced the structure of marmoset prosocial personality characteristics.Peer reviewe
Latitudinal and zoo specific zeitgebers influence circadian and circannual rhythmicity of behavior in captive giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca)
IntroductionThe circadian clock influences many aspects of animal welfare including metabolism, breeding, and behavior. In most species, circadian clocks are internal clocks regulated by external environmental cues called zeitgebers. The most common zeitgebers are light/dark cycles, food, and temperature. However, within captive environments, animals can be housed at latitudes with different light/dark cycles than their natural habitat and most other zeitgebers are controlled by humans. The effects that modified zeitgebers have on captive animalsâ circadian and circannual rhythmicity is largely unknown. To explore this and potential welfare implications, we measured and analyzed observational behavioral data of zoo-housed giant pandas for one year utilizing live camera footage from six zoos across the world. The worldwide distribution of the zoos gives us the unique opportunity to investigate how housing giant pandas within and outside of their natural latitudinal range can affect circadian rhythmicity and behavior.MethodsFocal sampling was completed for 11 giant pandas each month for 12 consecutive months to gain an estimate of one circannual cycle. Within each month, we estimated one daylight or 24âh cycle of activity/behavior by conducting 10-min observation sessions systemically each hour the pandas were visible.ResultsZero-inflated negative binomial mixture models found that latitude is associated with activity levels, with pandas housed outside of their natural latitudinal range displaying less activity than those within their latitudinal range. Amount of daylight, temperature minimum, and temperature range were also associated with activity cycles, potentially acting as zeitgebers. An association between sexual-related and stereotypic behavioral cycles was found, with the circannual cycles fluctuating in synchrony throughout several points in a year.DiscussionThese results indicate that changes to common zeitgebers and environmental conditions can influence circadian and circannual cycles. The widespread evolution of circadian rhythms suggests an adaptive advantage to possessing one in an environment with cyclical changes, allowing species to anticipate changes in their environment and respond accordingly. Therefore, although animals are highly adaptive, creating a captive environment that mimics the environmental conditions for which the animal has evolved can encourage naturalistic cycles that ultimately aid in promoting positive welfare states and increasing chances of successful breeding and conservation
- âŠ