Envoi de fonds et allocation du temps des enfants au Niger : L'effet indirect des chocs négatifs

By reducing financial constraints and income variability, remittances can increase educational attainment and thereby reduce child labor supply, in the context of imperfect financial markets. This paper aims to analyze the impact of remittances on child labor and educational outcomes in Niger. More specifically, we investigate how recipient households in Niger decide to spend this extra income with regard to the decision on sending their children to school or to work. Our methodology differs from previous ones in important respects. First, we estimate whether there are significant differences according the negative shocks occurrence. Second, the endogeneity of migration decisions complicates the analysis as it requires the identification of two separate events that are often driven by similar factors. In order to delineate the effect of remittances from migration, we focus on children residing in non-migrant households. Third, we use a Propensity Score Matching method to calculate the average treatment effects of remittances on children labor force or schooling participation decisions. We use this approach to avoid the identification problem generated by a simple comparison of households that receive remittances and households that do not. This approach requires a rich database, which is provided by the Troisième enquête nationale sur le budget et la Consommation des ménages (Niger, 2007). Indeed, with a sample size close to 4 thousand households, this survey contains information on the size of remittances received, the nature of remittances, the country where the cash transfers come from and the frequency with respect to previous year. Our findings show the positive role of remittances on schooling in every scenario selected (with or without shocks experienced). The remittances' effects on children's participation in economic activities are however much more complex and depend if the household has recently experienced a negative shock. Thus, while one of the main advantages of remittances is to diversify income sources and protect families in downturns, the use of children to work as a coping strategy is still frequent in Niger. These two mechanisms (remittance and child work) appear to be complementary

D'une crise à l'autre : mesurer l'impact des prix alimentaires sur la pauvreté

Debate on the measurement of food inflation's consequences on poverty is back since the recent surge in food prices at the end of 2010. This article provides a critical review of the literature that examines the different methods in assessing and estimating the impact of food price variability and volatility on household poverty. More precisely, the complexity of relationships between food price variation and poverty will be first examined. The second part addresses a range of methodologies and problems in measurement of food price variability's impacts. The last part links volatility to vulnerability's concept and investigates how measure consequences of a relative high food prices volatility.L'envolée récente des prix des commodités depuis fin 2010ouvre à nouveau le débat de la mesure desconséquences de l'inflation alimentaire sur la pauvreté.Cet article offre un éclairage méthodologique grâce à une revue critique de la littérature et propose de nouvelles pistes de réflexions afin d'évaluer au mieux l'effet de la variation et de la volatilité des prix sur la pauvreté des ménages. Plus précisément, la complexité des relations entre prix alimentaires et pauvreté sera initialement étudiée. Une seconde partie explique les différentes méthodes utilisées et les difficultés méthodologiques sous-jacentes à résoudre lorsque l'on souhaite mesurer l'impact du changement des prix sur la pauvreté individuelle. Enfin, la dernière partie insiste sur la nécessité d'intégrer la problématique de la volatilité des prix à l'analyse

Envoi de fonds et allocation du temps des enfants au Niger : L'effet indirect des chocs négatifs

By reducing financial constraints and income variability, remittances can increase educational attainment and thereby reduce child labor supply, in the context of imperfect financial markets. This paper aims to analyze the impact of remittances on child labor and educational outcomes in Niger. More specifically, we investigate how recipient households in Niger decide to spend this extra income with regard to the decision on sending their children to school or to work. Our methodology differs from previous ones in important respects. First, we estimate whether there are significant differences according the negative shocks occurrence. Second, the endogeneity of migration decisions complicates the analysis as it requires the identification of two separate events that are often driven by similar factors. In order to delineate the effect of remittances from migration, we focus on children residing in non-migrant households. Third, we use a Propensity Score Matching method to calculate the average treatment effects of remittances on children labor force or schooling participation decisions. We use this approach to avoid the identification problem generated by a simple comparison of households that receive remittances and households that do not. This approach requires a rich database, which is provided by the Troisième enquête nationale sur le budget et la Consommation des ménages (Niger, 2007). Indeed, with a sample size close to 4 thousand households, this survey contains information on the size of remittances received, the nature of remittances, the country where the cash transfers come from and the frequency with respect to previous year. Our findings show the positive role of remittances on schooling in every scenario selected (with or without shocks experienced). The remittances' effects on children's participation in economic activities are however much more complex and depend if the household has recently experienced a negative shock. Thus, while one of the main advantages of remittances is to diversify income sources and protect families in downturns, the use of children to work as a coping strategy is still frequent in Niger. These two mechanisms (remittance and child work) appear to be complementary.Remittances, Children time allocation, Propensity Score matching

La transition des jeunes camerounais vers le marché du travail

Cette étude vise à analyser le processus d’entrée sur le marché du travail au Cameroun, et la durée de transition de l’école au travail pour les jeunes scolarisés. Nous examinons ces deux modes de transition vers le marché du travail : du système scolaire ou bien de l’inactivité (ou de l’éducation informelle) vers le monde du travail. Nous utilisons pour cela un indicateur synthétique de la transition école-travail. Pour les jeunes intégrant directement la force de travail, l’âge moyen d’accès à un premier emploi est examiné. Une attention particulière est portée sur la situation du marché du travail des jeunes ainsi que sur les facteurs clés capables d’influencer cette situation (tels que l’accumulation du capital humain). A l’aide la méthode du maximum de vraisemblance, nous utilisons un modèle probit univarié de la probabilité d’accéder à un emploi, par niveau d’éducation. Pour cette analyse, nous utilisons les données de l’enquête ECAM3, conduite en 2007 par l’Institut national de statistique (INS) au Cameroun. Les résultats suggèrent que la transition Ecole-travail au Cameroun cache d’immenses disparités entre les individus. D’autre part, les caractéristiques individuelles (le genre, le milieu de résidence, le statut marital, le statut de migration..) et celles du marché local semblent influencer la probabilité d’accéder à un emploi. L’un des apports importants de cette étude est de mettre en lumière les spécificités du marché du travail des jeunes en fonction de leur niveau d’éducation. This study aims to analyze the process of labor market entry in Cameroon and, for those who attended school, the duration of the transition from school to work. The transition to work can take two routes, through the schooling system or from inactivity (or informal schooling) to the labor force. We examine both routes, in order to identify vulnerable groups. It uses a synthetic indicator in providing an overview of the routes young people take from education to the labor force. For the group transitioning directly to the labor force, the average entry in the labor market is examined. We pay then particular attention to the labor market outcomes of young people and key factors influencing these outcomes, including human capital accumulation. To this purpose, a probit univariate model of the probability of employment by level of education was made. For this analysis, we use 2007 ECAM3 conducted by the National Statistics institute (INS) of Cameroon. Results show large differences in the school-to-work transition process. Moreover, the individuals’ characteristics and the conditions of the local labor market appear to substantially influence the probability of finding employment. One of the most interesting contributions of this study is to highlight youth labor market specificities by education’s level.(Full text in french)

De l’école à l’emploi : la longue marche de la jeunesse urbaine malienne

Cette étude vise à analyser la durée écoulée entre la fin de scolarisation et l’accès à un premier emploi pour les jeunes maliens vivant en milieu urbain et ayant été scolarisés. Nous examinons deux modes de transition vers le marché du travail : du système scolaire vers un premier emploi puis du système scolaire vers un emploi satisfaisant. Les résultats apportent des éclairages sur les durées particulièrement longues d’accès à l’emploi. Les femmes et les plus diplômés sont particulièrement discriminés, alors que les plus riches et les migrants, grâce à l’ampleur de leurs réseaux sociaux, s’insèrent plus facilement sur le marché de l’emploi.This paper aims to analyse the process of transition from education to employment for young people in urban Mali. We present a new methodology to measure the transition length between school and a first job. Results show large differences between individuals in the two school-to-work transition processes. Female youth tend transit to work (and to satisfactory work) more slowly than male youth. Moreover less-educated young are often less vulnerable to difficult and long transitions. Migrants and youth belonging to wealthier household, thanks to the extent of their connections, fit easily into a work environment.In dieser Studie wird die Zeit untersucht, die junge, in der Stadt lebende Malier mit Schulausbildung brauchen, um einen ersten Arbeitsplatz zu finden. Überprüft wurden zwei Arten des Übergangs in die Arbeitswelt : vom Schulsystem zum ersten Arbeitsplatz und vom Schulsystem zu einem befriedigenden Arbeitsplatz. Die Ergebnisse beleuchten insbesondere lange Zugangswege zur Beschäftigung. Frauen und Absolventen mit hohem Ausbildungsniveau sind besonders benachteiligt, Reiche und Migranten finden dank weitgespannter sozialer Netze leichter einen Zugang zum Arbeitsmarkt.Este estudio busca analizar la duración transcurrida entre el fin de la escolarización y el acceso a un primer empleo para los jóvenes escolarizados de Mali provenientes de medios urbanos. Examinamos dos modos de transición hacia el mercado de trabajo : del sistema escolar hacia un primer empleo y luego del sistema escolar hacia un empleo satisfactorio. Los resultados aportan claves sobre los períodos particularmente largos de acceso al empleo. Las mujeres con mayor nivel de diplomas son particularmente discriminadas, mientras que los más ricos y los migrantes, gracias a la amplitud de sus redes sociales, se insertan más fácilmente en el mercado del empleo

De l’école à l’emploi : la longue marche de la jeunesse urbaine malienne

Cette étude vise à analyser la durée écoulée entre la fin de scolarisation et l’accès à un premier emploi pour les jeunes maliens vivant en milieu urbain et ayant été scolarisés. Nous examinons deux modes de transition vers le marché du travail : du système scolaire vers un premier emploi puis du système scolaire vers un emploi satisfaisant. Les résultats apportent des éclairages sur les durées particulièrement longues d’accès à l’emploi. Les femmes et les plus diplômés sont particulièrement discriminés, alors que les plus riches et les migrants, grâce à l’ampleur de leurs réseaux sociaux, s’insèrent plus facilement sur le marché de l’emploi.This paper aims to analyse the process of transition from education to employment for young people in urban Mali. We present a new methodology to measure the transition length between school and a first job. Results show large differences between individuals in the two school-to-work transition processes. Female youth tend transit to work (and to satisfactory work) more slowly than male youth. Moreover less-educated young are often less vulnerable to difficult and long transitions. Migrants and youth belonging to wealthier household, thanks to the extent of their connections, fit easily into a work environment.In dieser Studie wird die Zeit untersucht, die junge, in der Stadt lebende Malier mit Schulausbildung brauchen, um einen ersten Arbeitsplatz zu finden. Überprüft wurden zwei Arten des Übergangs in die Arbeitswelt : vom Schulsystem zum ersten Arbeitsplatz und vom Schulsystem zu einem befriedigenden Arbeitsplatz. Die Ergebnisse beleuchten insbesondere lange Zugangswege zur Beschäftigung. Frauen und Absolventen mit hohem Ausbildungsniveau sind besonders benachteiligt, Reiche und Migranten finden dank weitgespannter sozialer Netze leichter einen Zugang zum Arbeitsmarkt.Este estudio busca analizar la duración transcurrida entre el fin de la escolarización y el acceso a un primer empleo para los jóvenes escolarizados de Mali provenientes de medios urbanos. Examinamos dos modos de transición hacia el mercado de trabajo : del sistema escolar hacia un primer empleo y luego del sistema escolar hacia un empleo satisfactorio. Los resultados aportan claves sobre los períodos particularmente largos de acceso al empleo. Las mujeres con mayor nivel de diplomas son particularmente discriminadas, mientras que los más ricos y los migrantes, gracias a la amplitud de sus redes sociales, se insertan más fácilmente en el mercado del empleo

Child Labour Consequences on Education and Health: A Review of Evidence and Knowledge Gaps

Understanding and quantifying the consequences of child labour on children’s short- and longterm development is an important step in designing appropriate policies and programs to improve children’s well-being. We provide an updated review of the literature on the impact of child labour on children’s education and health. Specifically, this paper first explain the mechanisms by which child labour impacts children's education, physical health, and mental health, both in the short and long term. Second, we synthesize the available knowledge on the causal effect of child labour on education and health. We reviewed studies focusing on developing countries that investigate the consequences of child labour on education (25 studies selected), physical health (11 studies) and mental health (4 studies). Empirical evidence leaves no doubt about the negative impact of child labour on their physical and mental health. Although the consequences of child labour on education are mostly negative, working children could also benefit from learning additional skills. Finally, we highlight the methodological limitations and gaps of the current evidence, indicating that the empirical results reported are more an indication of potential effects than an actual quantification of the impacts of child labour

Analysis of sequence variability in the CART gene in relation to obesity in a Caucasian population

BACKGROUND: Cocaine and amphetamine regulated transcript (CART) is an anorectic neuropeptide located principally in hypothalamus. CART has been shown to be involved in control of feeding behavior, but a direct relationship with obesity has not been established. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of polymorphisms within the CART gene with regards to a possible association with obesity in a Caucasian population. RESULTS: Screening of the entire gene as well as a 3.7 kb region of 5' upstream sequence revealed 31 SNPs and 3 rare variants ; 14 of which were subsequently genotyped in 292 French morbidly obese subjects and 368 controls. Haplotype analysis suggested an association with obesity which was found to be mainly due to SNP-3608T>C (rs7379701) (p = 0.009). Genotyping additional cases and controls also of European Caucasian origin supported further this possible association between the CART SNP -3608T>C T allele and obesity (global p-value = 0.0005). Functional studies also suggested that the SNP -3608T>C could modulate nuclear protein binding. CONCLUSION: CART SNP -3608T>C may possibly contribute to the genetic risk for obesity in the Caucasian population. However confirmation of the importance of the role of the CART gene in energy homeostasis and obesity will require investigation and replication in further populations

Effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor and angiotensin receptor blocker initiation on organ support-free days in patients hospitalized with COVID-19

IMPORTANCE Overactivation of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) may contribute to poor clinical outcomes in patients with COVID-19. Objective To determine whether angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor or angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) initiation improves outcomes in patients hospitalized for COVID-19. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS In an ongoing, adaptive platform randomized clinical trial, 721 critically ill and 58 non–critically ill hospitalized adults were randomized to receive an RAS inhibitor or control between March 16, 2021, and February 25, 2022, at 69 sites in 7 countries (final follow-up on June 1, 2022). INTERVENTIONS Patients were randomized to receive open-label initiation of an ACE inhibitor (n = 257), ARB (n = 248), ARB in combination with DMX-200 (a chemokine receptor-2 inhibitor; n = 10), or no RAS inhibitor (control; n = 264) for up to 10 days. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES The primary outcome was organ support–free days, a composite of hospital survival and days alive without cardiovascular or respiratory organ support through 21 days. The primary analysis was a bayesian cumulative logistic model. Odds ratios (ORs) greater than 1 represent improved outcomes. RESULTS On February 25, 2022, enrollment was discontinued due to safety concerns. Among 679 critically ill patients with available primary outcome data, the median age was 56 years and 239 participants (35.2%) were women. Median (IQR) organ support–free days among critically ill patients was 10 (–1 to 16) in the ACE inhibitor group (n = 231), 8 (–1 to 17) in the ARB group (n = 217), and 12 (0 to 17) in the control group (n = 231) (median adjusted odds ratios of 0.77 [95% bayesian credible interval, 0.58-1.06] for improvement for ACE inhibitor and 0.76 [95% credible interval, 0.56-1.05] for ARB compared with control). The posterior probabilities that ACE inhibitors and ARBs worsened organ support–free days compared with control were 94.9% and 95.4%, respectively. Hospital survival occurred in 166 of 231 critically ill participants (71.9%) in the ACE inhibitor group, 152 of 217 (70.0%) in the ARB group, and 182 of 231 (78.8%) in the control group (posterior probabilities that ACE inhibitor and ARB worsened hospital survival compared with control were 95.3% and 98.1%, respectively). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE In this trial, among critically ill adults with COVID-19, initiation of an ACE inhibitor or ARB did not improve, and likely worsened, clinical outcomes. TRIAL REGISTRATION ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT0273570

The role of internal migration in accessing a first job: A case study of Uganda

Does experiencing internal migration hasten access to the labour market? This article studies the gap in length of transition to a first job between internal migrant and non-migrant youth in Uganda. According to the specific context of this developing country, three transition starting points are considered: date of birth, minimum legal working age and school exit. Extended Cox proportional hazard models suggest that migrants experience shorter transitions. However, when excluding child labourers or measuring school-to-work transitions, significant gaps disappear. Decomposition of transition length gaps reveals the importance of observable and unobservable factors related in particular to area of origin, gender and access to education