O uso de anaglifos na delimitação de unidades de mapeamento para levantamento semidetalhado de solos

The paper aims to show the utility of using anaglyph on the demarcation of soil mapping units; facilitating identification and enabling the expansion of information collection and observation points for larger areas. The use of photo-interpretation signifcantly reduces the time it would spend in recognition of all the properties and limits in the field. The work was conducted with the use of anaglyph in semi-detailed soil survey of the Lajeado dos Mineiros Watershed, in São José do Cerrito, Santa Catarina, covering an area of 2.877,37 ha. Data for soil classification was obtained through observation and collection in the field. The map of delineation of mapping units was produced using a scale of 1:50,000.O trabalho pretende mostrar a utilidade dos anaglifos na demarcação de unidades de mapeamento de solos, facilitando sua identificação e possibilitando ampliar informações de pontos de observação e coleta para áreas mais extensas. O uso da fotointerpretação reduz significativamente o tempo que se gastaria no reconhecimento de todas as propriedades e limites em campo. O trabalho considerou satisfatória a utilização de anaglifos para o levantamento semidetalhado dos solos da Microbacia de Lajeado dos Mineiros, no município de São José do Cerrito, no Estado de Santa Catarina, abrangendo uma área de 2.877,37 ha. Os dados para classificação dos solos foram obtidos através da observação e coleta de campo e o mapa de delineamento das unidades de mapeamento foi produzido na escala 1:50.000

Spatial disaggregation of multi-component soil map units using legacy data and a tree-based algorithm in southern Brazil

Soil surveys often contain multi-component map units comprising two or more soil classes, whose spatial distribution within the map unit is not represented. Digital Soil Mapping tools supported by information from soil surveys make it possible to predict where these classes are located. The aim of this study was to develop a methodology to increase the detail of conventional soil maps by means of spatial disaggregation of multi-component map units and to predict the spatial location of the derived soil classes. Three digital maps of terrain variables - slope, landforms, and topographic wetness index - were correlated with the soil map and 72 georeferenced profiles from the Porto Alegre soil survey. Explicit rules that expressed regional soil-landscape relationships were formulated based on the resulting combinations. These rules were used to select typical areas of occurrence of each soil class and to train a decision tree model to predict the occurrence of individualized soil classes. Validation of the soil map predictions was conducted by comparison with available soil profiles. The soil map produced showed high agreement (80.5 % accuracy) with the soil classes observed in the soil profiles; Ultisols and Lithic Udorthents were predicted with greater accuracy. The soil variables selected in this study were suitable to represent the soil-landscape relationships, suggesting potential use in future studies. This approach developed a more detailed soil map relevant to current demands for soil information and has potential to be replicated in other areas in which data availability is similar

Individualização de classes de solos por desagregação de polígonos de mapa fisiográfico

The objective of this work was to disaggregate the polygons of physiographic map units in order to individualize the soil classes in each one, representing them as simple soil map units and generating a more detailed soil map than the original one, making these data more useful for future reference. A physiographic map, on a 1:25,000 scale, of the Tarumãzinho watershed, located in the municipality of Águas Frias, in the state of Santa Catarina, Brazil, was used. For disaggregation, three geomorphometric parameters were applied: slope and landforms, both derived from the digital terrain model; and an elevation map. The boundaries of the physiographic units and the elevation, slope, and landform maps were subjected to cross tabulation to identify the existing combinations between the soil classes of each physiographic unit. Based on these combinations, rules were established to select typical areas of occurrence of each soil type in order to train a decision tree model to predict the occurrence of soil classes. The model was trained using the Weka software and was validated with a set of georeferenced soil profiles. Disaggregation enables the individualization and spatialization of soil classes and is useful in producing detailed soil maps.O objetivo deste trabalho foi desagregar os polígonos de mapas de unidades fisiográficas, de modo a individualizar as classes de solos ocorrentes em cada unidade, para representá-las como unidades de mapeamento simples de solos e gerar um mapa de solos com maior detalhe cartográfico que o mapa original, ampliando a utilidade desses dados em demandas futuras. Foi utilizado um mapa fisiográfico, em escala 1:25.000, da microbacia Córrego Tarumãzinho, localizada no Município de Águas Frias, no Estado de Santa Catarina. Para realizar a desagregação, foram utilizados três parâmetros geomorfométricos: declividade e formas do terreno, ambas derivadas do modelo digital do terreno; e mapa de elevação. Os limites das unidades fisiográficas e os mapas de elevação, declividade e formas do terreno foram submetidos à tabulação cruzada para identificar as combinações existentes entre as classes de solos que compõem cada unidade fisiográfica. A partir dessas combinações, foram elaboradas regras para selecionar áreas de ocorrência típica de cada tipo de solo, para treinar um modelo de árvores de decisão para predição da ocorrência das classes de solos. O treinamento do modelo foi realizado no programa Weka, e a sua validação foi feita com um conjunto de perfis de solos georreferenciados. A desagregação possibilita a individualização e a espacialização das classes de solos e é útil para a produção de mapas de solos detalhados

Empirical and mechanistic models applied to digital mapping of soil attributes

O mapeamento digital tem se tornado uma das mais importantes ferramentas na predição e mapeamento de solos. Apesar de sua importância, é ainda pouco difundido no Brasil, principalmente na predição e mapeamento de atributos de solo. O objetivo desta tese foi apresentar e avaliar diferentes modelos que podem ser utilizados no mapeamento digital de atributos de solo. Primeiramente foram discutidos e analisados diferentes modelos empíricos e, em sequência, também foram avaliados modelos mecanísticos. Dois estudos foram apresentados, um envolvendo um modelo empírico para predição e mapeamento de concentração e estoque de carbono no solo e outro utilizando modelos mecanísticos para predição de profundidade do solo e sua alteração com o tempo, em diferentes posições da paisagem. Os estudos foram aplicados no Vale dos Vinhedos, RS. Ambos modelos apresentaram validação satisfatória e capacidade de mapear atributos de solos. O modelo empírico apresentou maior dependência em relação aos dados de campo e seus resultados variaram de acordo com o método escolhido e o número e representatividade amostral. O modelo mecanístico se mostrou complexo e importante para identificar tendências de distribuição do atributo mapeado (profundidade do solo), apesar da impossibilidade de modelar todos os fenômenos envolvidos durante a pedogênese. Também apresentou menor dependência das condições amostrais e condições para melhor compreensão do comportamento dos elementos envolvidos durante os fenômenos naturais de pedogênese. Ambos modelos podem ser utilizados no mapeamento digital de solos, considerando as suas vantagens e respeitando as limitações de cada técnica utilizada.The digital mapping has become one of the most important tools on soil predicting and mapping. Although the importance, it is still a poorly disseminated methodology in Brazil, mainly when applied in soil attributes prediction and mapping. This thesis aimed to present and evaluate different models that can be used in digital mapping of soil attributes. Firstly, different techniques from empirical models to predict and map were discussed. In sequence, techniques from mechanistic models were also evaluated. Two studies were presented. The first study involved an empirical model to predict and map soil organic carbon content and stocks. The second used a mechanistic model to predict soil thickness and its variation over time in different landscape positions. The studies were conducted in Vale dos Vinhedos, RS, Brazil. Both models performance were considered satisfactory and able to map soil attributes. The empirical models depended from soil samples and results varied conform the method chosen, the soil samples number and representativity. The mechanistic models showed complexity and it was important to identify soil thickness tendencies, despite the impossibility to model all the phenomena involved during the pedogenesis. It was less dependent from soil samples and allowed a better understanding about the elements behavior involved. Both models can be used in digital mapping of soil attributes, considering their advantages and respecting each technique limitations

Empirical and mechanistic models applied to digital mapping of soil attributes

O mapeamento digital tem se tornado uma das mais importantes ferramentas na predição e mapeamento de solos. Apesar de sua importância, é ainda pouco difundido no Brasil, principalmente na predição e mapeamento de atributos de solo. O objetivo desta tese foi apresentar e avaliar diferentes modelos que podem ser utilizados no mapeamento digital de atributos de solo. Primeiramente foram discutidos e analisados diferentes modelos empíricos e, em sequência, também foram avaliados modelos mecanísticos. Dois estudos foram apresentados, um envolvendo um modelo empírico para predição e mapeamento de concentração e estoque de carbono no solo e outro utilizando modelos mecanísticos para predição de profundidade do solo e sua alteração com o tempo, em diferentes posições da paisagem. Os estudos foram aplicados no Vale dos Vinhedos, RS. Ambos modelos apresentaram validação satisfatória e capacidade de mapear atributos de solos. O modelo empírico apresentou maior dependência em relação aos dados de campo e seus resultados variaram de acordo com o método escolhido e o número e representatividade amostral. O modelo mecanístico se mostrou complexo e importante para identificar tendências de distribuição do atributo mapeado (profundidade do solo), apesar da impossibilidade de modelar todos os fenômenos envolvidos durante a pedogênese. Também apresentou menor dependência das condições amostrais e condições para melhor compreensão do comportamento dos elementos envolvidos durante os fenômenos naturais de pedogênese. Ambos modelos podem ser utilizados no mapeamento digital de solos, considerando as suas vantagens e respeitando as limitações de cada técnica utilizada.The digital mapping has become one of the most important tools on soil predicting and mapping. Although the importance, it is still a poorly disseminated methodology in Brazil, mainly when applied in soil attributes prediction and mapping. This thesis aimed to present and evaluate different models that can be used in digital mapping of soil attributes. Firstly, different techniques from empirical models to predict and map were discussed. In sequence, techniques from mechanistic models were also evaluated. Two studies were presented. The first study involved an empirical model to predict and map soil organic carbon content and stocks. The second used a mechanistic model to predict soil thickness and its variation over time in different landscape positions. The studies were conducted in Vale dos Vinhedos, RS, Brazil. Both models performance were considered satisfactory and able to map soil attributes. The empirical models depended from soil samples and results varied conform the method chosen, the soil samples number and representativity. The mechanistic models showed complexity and it was important to identify soil thickness tendencies, despite the impossibility to model all the phenomena involved during the pedogenesis. It was less dependent from soil samples and allowed a better understanding about the elements behavior involved. Both models can be used in digital mapping of soil attributes, considering their advantages and respecting each technique limitations

Instance selection in digital soil mapping : a study case in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

A critical issue in digital soil mapping (DSM) is the selection of data sampling method for model training. One emerging approach applies instance selection to reduce the size of the dataset by drawing only relevant samples in order to obtain a representative subset that is still large enough to preserve relevant information, but small enough to be easily handled by learning algorithms. Although there are suggestions to distribute data sampling as a function of the soil map unit (MU) boundaries location, there are still contradictions among research recommendations for locating samples either closer or more distant from soil MU boundaries. A study was conducted to evaluate instance selection methods based on spatially-explicit data collection using location in relation to soil MU boundaries as the main criterion. Decision tree analysis was performed for modeling digital soil class mapping using two different sampling schemes: a) selecting sampling points located outside buffers near soil MU boundaries, and b) selecting sampling points located within buffers near soil MU boundaries. Data was prepared for generating classification trees to include only data points located within or outside buffers with widths of 60, 120, 240, 360, 480, and 600m near MU boundaries. Instance selection methods using both spatial selection of methods was effective for reduced size of the dataset used for calibrating classification tree models, but failed to provide advantages to digital soil mapping because of potential reduction in the accuracy of classification tree models.Uma questão crítica no mapeamento digital de solos é a seleção do método de amostragem dos dados para treinamento do modelo preditivo. Uma abordagem emergente aplica a seleção de instâncias (observações) para reduzir o tamanho do conjunto de dados, selecionando amostras relevantes para obter um subconjunto representativo, o qual seja grande o suficiente para preservar as informações pertinentes, mas pequeno o suficiente para ser facilmente manipulado pelos algoritmos de aprendizagem. Embora existam sugestões para distribuir a amostragem de dados em função da proximidade de limites de unidades de mapeamento de solos (UM), ainda existem contradições entre as recomendações de pesquisa para localizar amostras mais perto ou mais distantes desses limites. Foi realizado um estudo para avaliar os métodos de seleção de instâncias com base na coleta de dados espacialmente explícita usando a localização em relação aos limites de mapa de solo como o principal critério. Realizou-se análise de árvore de decisão para a modelagem de mapeamento digital de classes de solo usando dois esquemas de amostragem diferentes: a) selecionando pontos de amostragem localizados fora das áreas marginais aos limites das UM e b) selecionando pontos de amostragem situados dentro das áreas marginais aos limites das UM. Os dados foram preparados para a geração de árvores de classificação para incluir somente dados pontuais localizados dentro ou fora de faixas com larguras de 60, 120, 240, 360, 480 e 600m ao redor dos limites de UM. Ambos os métodos de seleção de instâncias foram eficazes para reduzir o tamanho do conjunto de dados usado para calibração de árvores de classificação, mas não trouxeram vantagens para o mapeamento digital de classes de solos

Instance selection in digital soil mapping : a study case in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

A critical issue in digital soil mapping (DSM) is the selection of data sampling method for model training. One emerging approach applies instance selection to reduce the size of the dataset by drawing only relevant samples in order to obtain a representative subset that is still large enough to preserve relevant information, but small enough to be easily handled by learning algorithms. Although there are suggestions to distribute data sampling as a function of the soil map unit (MU) boundaries location, there are still contradictions among research recommendations for locating samples either closer or more distant from soil MU boundaries. A study was conducted to evaluate instance selection methods based on spatially-explicit data collection using location in relation to soil MU boundaries as the main criterion. Decision tree analysis was performed for modeling digital soil class mapping using two different sampling schemes: a) selecting sampling points located outside buffers near soil MU boundaries, and b) selecting sampling points located within buffers near soil MU boundaries. Data was prepared for generating classification trees to include only data points located within or outside buffers with widths of 60, 120, 240, 360, 480, and 600m near MU boundaries. Instance selection methods using both spatial selection of methods was effective for reduced size of the dataset used for calibrating classification tree models, but failed to provide advantages to digital soil mapping because of potential reduction in the accuracy of classification tree models.Uma questão crítica no mapeamento digital de solos é a seleção do método de amostragem dos dados para treinamento do modelo preditivo. Uma abordagem emergente aplica a seleção de instâncias (observações) para reduzir o tamanho do conjunto de dados, selecionando amostras relevantes para obter um subconjunto representativo, o qual seja grande o suficiente para preservar as informações pertinentes, mas pequeno o suficiente para ser facilmente manipulado pelos algoritmos de aprendizagem. Embora existam sugestões para distribuir a amostragem de dados em função da proximidade de limites de unidades de mapeamento de solos (UM), ainda existem contradições entre as recomendações de pesquisa para localizar amostras mais perto ou mais distantes desses limites. Foi realizado um estudo para avaliar os métodos de seleção de instâncias com base na coleta de dados espacialmente explícita usando a localização em relação aos limites de mapa de solo como o principal critério. Realizou-se análise de árvore de decisão para a modelagem de mapeamento digital de classes de solo usando dois esquemas de amostragem diferentes: a) selecionando pontos de amostragem localizados fora das áreas marginais aos limites das UM e b) selecionando pontos de amostragem situados dentro das áreas marginais aos limites das UM. Os dados foram preparados para a geração de árvores de classificação para incluir somente dados pontuais localizados dentro ou fora de faixas com larguras de 60, 120, 240, 360, 480 e 600m ao redor dos limites de UM. Ambos os métodos de seleção de instâncias foram eficazes para reduzir o tamanho do conjunto de dados usado para calibração de árvores de classificação, mas não trouxeram vantagens para o mapeamento digital de classes de solos

Selection of Environmental Covariates for Classifier Training Applied in Digital Soil Mapping

ABSTRACT A large number of predictor variables can be used in digital soil mapping; however, the presence of irrelevant covariables may compromise the prediction of soil types. Thus, algorithms can be applied to select the most relevant predictors. This study aimed to compare three covariable selection systems (two filter algorithms and one wrapper algorithm) and assess their impacts on the predictive model. The study area was the Lajeado River Watershed in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. We used forty predictor covariables, derived from a digital elevation model with 30 m resolution, in which the three selection models were applied and separated into subsets. These subsets were used to assess performance by applying four prediction algorithms. The wrapper method obtained the best performance values for the predictive model in all the algorithms evaluated. The three selection methods applied reduced the number of covariables in the predictive models by 70 % and enabled prediction of the 14 soil mapping units

Spatial Disaggregation of Multi-Component Soil Map Units Using Legacy Data and a Tree-Based Algorithm in Southern Brazil

ABSTRACT Soil surveys often contain multi-component map units comprising two or more soil classes, whose spatial distribution within the map unit is not represented. Digital Soil Mapping tools supported by information from soil surveys make it possible to predict where these classes are located. The aim of this study was to develop a methodology to increase the detail of conventional soil maps by means of spatial disaggregation of multi-component map units and to predict the spatial location of the derived soil classes. Three digital maps of terrain variables - slope, landforms, and topographic wetness index - were correlated with the soil map and 72 georeferenced profiles from the Porto Alegre soil survey. Explicit rules that expressed regional soil-landscape relationships were formulated based on the resulting combinations. These rules were used to select typical areas of occurrence of each soil class and to train a decision tree model to predict the occurrence of individualized soil classes. Validation of the soil map predictions was conducted by comparison with available soil profiles. The soil map produced showed high agreement (80.5 % accuracy) with the soil classes observed in the soil profiles; Ultisols and Lithic Udorthents were predicted with greater accuracy. The soil variables selected in this study were suitable to represent the soil-landscape relationships, suggesting potential use in future studies. This approach developed a more detailed soil map relevant to current demands for soil information and has potential to be replicated in other areas in which data availability is similar

Soil Color and Mineralogy Mapping Using Proximal and Remote Sensing in Midwest Brazil

Soil color and mineralogy are used as diagnostic criteria to distinguish different soil types. In the literature, 350–2500 nm spectra were successfully used to predict soil color and mineralogy, but these attributes currently are not mapped for most Brazilian soils. In this paper, we provided the first large-extent maps with 30 m resolution of soil color and mineralogy at three depth intervals for 850,000 km2 of Midwest Brazil. We obtained soil 350–2500 nm spectra from 1397 sites of the Brazilian Soil Spectral Library at 0–20 cm, 20–60, and 60–100 cm depths. Spectra was used to derive Munsell hue, value, and chroma, and also second derivative spectra of the Kubelka–Munk function, where key spectral bands were identified and their amplitude measured for mineral quantification. Landsat composites of topsoil and vegetation reflectance, together with relief and climate data, were used as covariates to predict Munsell color and Fe–Al oxides, and 1:1 and 2:1 clay minerals of topsoil and subsoil. We used random forest for soil modeling and 10-fold cross-validation. Soil spectra and remote sensing data accurately mapped color and mineralogy at topsoil and subsoil in Midwest Brazil. Hematite showed high prediction accuracy (R2 > 0.71), followed by Munsell value and hue. Satellite topsoil reflectance at blue spectral region was the most relevant predictor (25% global importance) for soil color and mineralogy. Our maps were consistent with pedological expert knowledge, legacy soil observations, and legacy soil class map of the study region