Tales of the unpredictable : learning about institutional frameworks that support farmer management of agro-biodiversity

In 1992, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was signed by a large number of countries in Rio de Janeiro. This Convention constitutes a framework linking biodiversity conservation and development. CBD also emphasises the in situ strategy for biodiversity conservation. In the years following CBD, the strategy and agro-biodiversity management received much attention. This book reports on some of the initial efforts to develop and implement in situ conservation through the support of farmer management of agro-biodiversity. Because of the dynamic nature of the human and natural components of agro-biodiversity the strategy aims to maintain, it is referred to as "on-farm management" of agro-biodiversity. While studying efforts to develop the strategy, social and institutional aspects of the strategy's development are addressed; these are referred to as the strategy's social construction and social organisation.The book reflects on experiences of a team that worked at the Centre for Genetic Resources, the Netherlands between 1990 and 1998. The team was involved in the development of agro-biodiversity projects in many developing countries. The experiences of the author, the team and their colleagues from the South form the foundation to the book.The strategy has been studied within a framework of experiential learning. Two socio-ecological perspectives have been used to provide the theoretical framework for reflection. These perspectives are used for the development of "windows of reflection" that guide and structure five case studies on agro-biodiversity projects and organisations.Adaptive management is the first socio-ecological perspective used. It has been developed by ecologists involved in the management of large ecosystems. Policy and management organisations form a triangle with citizens in an adaptive framework for ecosystem management. Research provides feedback between the management system and the ecosystem and facilitates linkages between components. Social learning is considered an important attribute to adaptive management, as it strengthens management and policy organisations and citizens in their capacity to adapt management practices and policies to the managed ecosystem's ecological and social dynamics.The second socio-ecological perspective is based on the ecological knowledge system. It addresses the social and institutional aspects for the development of sustainable agriculture. Its dimensions are farmers' practices, learning, facilitation, supportive institutions and networks and conducive policies. The book uses these perspectives in an area application foreign to the field in which they have been developed. The perspective's dimensions have been used in the development of four "windows of reflection" that have guided the organisation of information gathered. The four "windows" guide and focus the case studies on (i) actors involved; (ii) flows of germplasm, knowledge and information; (iii) the social organisation of projects, organisations and the strategy's development; and (iv) the social construction of the strategy and efforts to link conservation and development.The first case study is located in the Netherlands, the author's home country. Institutional aspects of CGN as the National Plant Genetic Resources Programme (NPGRP) or "genebank" have been described. Zeeuwse Vlegel is introduced; it is a farmer organisation involved in the production of more ecologically sound and regional bread. In the case study, an attempt to establish linkages between the "genebank" and a farmer organisation is analysed. The study reveals that both actors are operating at the far ends of a crop development chain. CGN is not in a position to directly support a farmer organisation in its search for appropriate wheat varieties. It illustrates how dominant institutional frameworks and actor networks limit actors to collaborate and promote utilisation of agro-biodiversity. This situation is worsened by the gradual shift of agricultural research from the public to the private domain and by the unclear CGN's institutional framework.The second case study describes a project to establish an Agro-Biodiversity Centre in Bhutan. It emphasises an integrated conservation approach to the development of an NPGRP. Important elements include the use of agro-biodiversity surveys as tools for prioritisation of conservation strategies ( in situ , ex situ and on-farm), and targeting conservation actions at crops and locations. Another element is a decentralised organisation. It was proposed to develop local and regional agro-biodiversity platforms. The third case study stresses the formation of platforms in the development of biodiversity products. It describes a project to establish a Centre for Biodiversity Utilisation and Development in Ghana. This Centre plays a facilitation role in the initiation of activities and establishes linkages between social actors necessary for development of and marketing biodiversity products. Both the Bhutan and Ghana case studies are primarily based on formulation missions and only cover to a limited extent the projects' initial activities.The fourth case study describes and analyses institutional aspects of the in situ project of the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI). It undertakes activities in nine countries across the world and has been set up as a global effort to strengthen the scientific basis of in situ conservation on-farm. The project is implemented within the framework of NPGRPs, which through participation of NGOs and farmer groups are gradually opened up to new partners. The case study reveals that during the project's initial years IPGRI and its partners have added a strong development orientation to the project. The chapter also illustrates in what way the focus has shifted from science and conservation to utilisation of agro-biodiversity within a context of sustainable agriculture.The fifth case study describes and analyses efforts of the Community Biodiversity Conservation and Development (CBDC) Programme to develop and construct the in situ and on-farm conservation strategies. This programme is implemented by a group of NGOs complemented by some governmental genebanks, research organisations and university groups. It is operational in 16 countries on five continents. CBDC's focus is on strengthening community agro-biodiversity management. The case study illustrates CBDC's effort to develop a protocol for collaboration linking a diversity of organisations in one programme. It also illustrates attempts to link global and local objectives to support farmer management of agro-biodiversity. It is concluded that the programme in its initial years emphasised local capacity building and community empowerment. In its local orientation, CBDC is complementary to the IPGRI in situ project that operates within national frameworks and focuses on globally co-ordinated research. CBDC is above all considered an institutional experiment bringing together a diversity of locally operating organisations in an interactive and "bottom-up organised" programme.Conclusions have been drawn on the socio-ecological perspectives and institutional frameworks that support farmer management of agro-biodiversity. A key output is that "on-farm management" of agro-biodiversity should be considered by actors in the institutional crop development system an emergent property of an agro-biodiversity system formed by farmers and other actors involved. In the initial technical efforts, conservationists had considered it difficult to develop the strategy. When considering "on-farm management" a human activity system, it is evident that these conservationists were constrained by their "hard" and technical approach. The ecological perspective on agro-biodiversity as an agro-ecological service has been recognised, when placing agro-biodiversity in a context of increasing agro-ecosystem resilience. An important lesson is that "on-farm management" should not only be perceived as a conservation strategy but rather as a strategy that supports and strengthens farmer management and utilisation of crop genetic diversity.In an application of grounded theory, some lessons can be learnt about adaptive management and the ecological knowledge system as socio-ecological perspectives. An important lesson learnt is that rather than ecological objectives emphasised in both perspectives, political, institutional, scientific and conservation objective should motivate actors in agro-biodiversity projects. A second lesson refers to the boundaries drawn for the application of both perspectives on agro-biodiversity management. When using soft system thinking, actors socially construct system boundaries. Because of the mobile and reproductive nature of agro-biodiversity, system boundaries may be defined at various local levels. In an application of adaptive management, each agro-biodiversity system may construct institutional frameworks in which management, policy and citizen organisations are linked. Various case studies illustrate that the establishment of agro-biodiversity platforms and facilitation in processes of social learning and joint experimentation are prominent components in an adaptive organisation of agro-biodiversity management.NPGRPs' opportunities to support farmer management have been explored. Interactions with other actors involved in crop development have been elaborated. Barriers into institutional frameworks and professionalism are described. Some of the case studies explore the ways in which these barriers can be bridged. It is further emphasised that the flow of germplasm, knowledge and information within the institutional crop development system should be modified from a linear to an integrated organisation in which conservationists, breeders and seed specialists link with farmers' local systems. When building an agro-biodiversity management system, the boundaries between institutional and local (farmer) crop development fade away. Farmers become crop development organisations' partners in conservation, breeding and seed supply.Efforts to construct "on-farm management" and its social organisation are placed within context of current policy trends and changes in institutional agro-biodiversity frameworks. It is evident that the Convention cannot be isolated from other policy fora such as the FAO-IU/PGR and WTO/TRIPS. In this context, attention to the strategy may be viewed as a reaction to processes of "appropriation" of and limiting farmers' access to agro-biodiversity. The strategy emerges as a civil reaction to a decreasing public and increasing private presence in agro-biodiversity management. With respect to the institutional frameworks, the social contract between NPGRPs as public entities within society is emphasised. Conservation, but also other public and private organisations can only operate through a social contract with civil society; they are socially and politically accountable to civil society. This issue links this book with the current GMO debate in which the modern biotechnology's social contract is a major issue.Based on the adaptive management perspective, the activities described and analysed in this book are placed within a historical perspective on institutional renewal in the agro-biodiversity arena. A preliminary conclusion can be drawn that the activities and projects described should be considered to open up a path to a more adaptive approach to agro-biodiversity management and more ecologically sound agriculture. However, it is too early to draw conclusions whether or not they form alternative projects or comprise initial attempts that contribute to a new configuration and organisation of agro-biodiversity management and crop development. The book describes and analyses projects initiated shortly after the Convention was signed. It is considered too early, to analyse their impact on and potential contributions to the processes of institutional renewal required for institutional frameworks more actively to support farmer management and utilisation of agro-biodiversity.</p

Farmers, seeds and varieties : supporting informal seed supply in Ethiopia

Ethiopia is characterized by an enormous diversity in agro-ecosystems, crops and varieties, with the informal seed systems dominant in seed supply for almost all crops. The book addresses strategies and approaches through which professionals can support informal seed supply, and links these with the conservation and use of the huge genetic resource base of crops and local varieties. The book looks at informal seed supply from a number of different angles, introduces key concepts and strategies, and presents case studies from Ethiopia and other countries. It deals with the technical aspects of, quality and availability of, and access to seed, and of supporting informal supply. It also deals with the role of farmers in the conservation and management of local crops and varieties, and the participation of farmers and communities in plant breeding and research. It takes a particular interest in the role of farmer organizations in seed supply, and how this role can be strengthened by developing community and small-scale seed enterprises. The aim of all the strategies, case studies and reflections on experiences presented in this book is to improve the availability of and access to quality seeds and varieties, thereby improving the livelihoods of small-scale farmers in Ethiopia and beyond

Ferramentas participativas no trabalho com cultivos, variedades e sementes. Um guia para profissionais que trabalham com abordagens participativas no manejo da agrobiodiversidade, no melhoramento de cultivos e no desenvolvimento do setor de sementes

Sumário Nos nossos programas de treinamento sobre manejo local da agrobiodiversidade, melhoramento participativo de cultivos e apoio às fontes locais de semente, as ferramentas participativas ganham uma ampla atenção. Ferramentas são trabalhadas na teoria, são praticadas em situações em sala de aula, mas também são aplicadas em estudos a campo. Os objetivos da prática de ferramentas participativas no treinamento em manejo da agrobiodiversidade local relacionados aos objetivos deste guia são muitos. Entretanto, o presente livro-guia tem como objetivo-chave prover aos profissionais que trabalham no manejo de recursos genéticos, no melhoramento de cultivos e no contexto do desenvolvimento do setor de sementes, um conjunto diversificado de ferramentas desenvolvidas para o aprendizado e ação participativos que sejam adaptadas aos seus contextos específicos. Além desse objetivo principal, procuramos intensificar a criatividade e a flexibilidade desses profissionais no trabalho com grupos orientados de aprendizado e ação participativos, no diagnóstico, no planejamento e implementação de pesquisas, e no monitoramento e avaliação de projetos de agrobiodiversidade, de melhoramento de plantas e de sementes. Utilizamos o livro estruturado por Frans Geilfus1, o qual abrange 80 ferramentas para o desenvolvimento participativo, como uma importante base para esse guia de ferramentas. Uma seleção de ferramentas de Geilfus e de outros foram adaptadas em uma série de instrumentos participativos que podem dar apoio ao manejo da agrobiodiversidade, ao melhoramento de cultivos e ao desenvolvimento do setor de sementes. A estrutura deriva, basicamente, desse livro. Os exemplos e a seleção das ferramentas foram inspirados em experiências reais durante os cursos sobre melhoramento participativo de cultivos, sobre o desenvolvimento do setor de sementes, e manejo local da agrobiodiversidade, como organizado pela Wageningen International nos últimos 10 anos. Algumas outras ferramentas derivaram de outras fontes. As ferramentas foram testadas em projetos locais, por exemplo, no Brasil, Colômbia, Peru, Equador, Gana, Nigéria, Etiópia, Nepal, Índia e Irã. O guia foi desenhado de tal forma que é fácil de ser usado como uma referência no campo. A seqüência das ferramentas é similar àquela freqüentemente usada em análises participativas: inicia com ferramentas gerais, apresenta depois ferramentas mais detalhadas em tópicos específicos e culmina com ferramentas mais analíticas, que podem ser aplicadas às comunidades, mas que também podem auxiliar a equipe facilitadora na análise (depois do diagnóstico) das informações colhidas. Entretanto, quais ferramentas aplicar, que tipo (mapa, matriz ou qualquer outro), com quem, em que seqüência, depende muito do contexto e do objetivo do exercício. Por favor, não considerem este como um livro de receitas, mas sim como um conjunto de ferramentas que você pode utilizar. Consideramos o guia como uma inspiração para encorajar você a adaptar, compor e, desse modo, projetar suas próprias ferramentas

Ferramentas participativas no trabalho com cultivos, variedades e sementes. Um guia para profissionais que trabalham com abordagens participativas no manejo da agrobiodiversidade, no melhoramento de cultivos e no desenvolvimento do setor de sementes

Sumário Nos nossos programas de treinamento sobre manejo local da agrobiodiversidade, melhoramento participativo de cultivos e apoio às fontes locais de semente, as ferramentas participativas ganham uma ampla atenção. Ferramentas são trabalhadas na teoria, são praticadas em situações em sala de aula, mas também são aplicadas em estudos a campo. Os objetivos da prática de ferramentas participativas no treinamento em manejo da agrobiodiversidade local relacionados aos objetivos deste guia são muitos. Entretanto, o presente livro-guia tem como objetivo-chave prover aos profissionais que trabalham no manejo de recursos genéticos, no melhoramento de cultivos e no contexto do desenvolvimento do setor de sementes, um conjunto diversificado de ferramentas desenvolvidas para o aprendizado e ação participativos que sejam adaptadas aos seus contextos específicos. Além desse objetivo principal, procuramos intensificar a criatividade e a flexibilidade desses profissionais no trabalho com grupos orientados de aprendizado e ação participativos, no diagnóstico, no planejamento e implementação de pesquisas, e no monitoramento e avaliação de projetos de agrobiodiversidade, de melhoramento de plantas e de sementes. Utilizamos o livro estruturado por Frans Geilfus1, o qual abrange 80 ferramentas para o desenvolvimento participativo, como uma importante base para esse guia de ferramentas. Uma seleção de ferramentas de Geilfus e de outros foram adaptadas em uma série de instrumentos participativos que podem dar apoio ao manejo da agrobiodiversidade, ao melhoramento de cultivos e ao desenvolvimento do setor de sementes. A estrutura deriva, basicamente, desse livro. Os exemplos e a seleção das ferramentas foram inspirados em experiências reais durante os cursos sobre melhoramento participativo de cultivos, sobre o desenvolvimento do setor de sementes, e manejo local da agrobiodiversidade, como organizado pela Wageningen International nos últimos 10 anos. Algumas outras ferramentas derivaram de outras fontes. As ferramentas foram testadas em projetos locais, por exemplo, no Brasil, Colômbia, Peru, Equador, Gana, Nigéria, Etiópia, Nepal, Índia e Irã. O guia foi desenhado de tal forma que é fácil de ser usado como uma referência no campo. A seqüência das ferramentas é similar àquela freqüentemente usada em análises participativas: inicia com ferramentas gerais, apresenta depois ferramentas mais detalhadas em tópicos específicos e culmina com ferramentas mais analíticas, que podem ser aplicadas às comunidades, mas que também podem auxiliar a equipe facilitadora na análise (depois do diagnóstico) das informações colhidas. Entretanto, quais ferramentas aplicar, que tipo (mapa, matriz ou qualquer outro), com quem, em que seqüência, depende muito do contexto e do objetivo do exercício. Por favor, não considerem este como um livro de receitas, mas sim como um conjunto de ferramentas que você pode utilizar. Consideramos o guia como uma inspiração para encorajar você a adaptar, compor e, desse modo, projetar suas próprias ferramentas

Participatory tools working with crops, varieties and seeds. A guide for professionals applying participatory approaches in agrobiodiversity management, crop improvement and seed sector development

Outline to the guide Within our training programmes on local management of agrobiodiversity, participatory crop improvement and the support of local seed supply participatory tools get ample attention. Tools are dealt with theoretically, are practised in class situations, but are also applied in field study assignments. The objectives of practising participatory tools in training on local agrobiodiversity management and related to that the objectives of this guide are many. However, the current guide book has the following key objective being to provide professionals working in a genetic resources management, crop improvement and seed sector development context a kit with a diversity of tools developed for participatory learning and action that have been adapted to their specific context. In addition to this main goal, we aim to enhance those professionals’ creativity and flexibility in conducting group oriented, participatory learning and action types of diagnosis, research planning and implementation, and monitoring and evaluation with agrobiodiversity, plant breeding and seed projects. We used the handbook as developed by Frans Geilfus , which covers 80 tools for participatory development as an important base for this tools guide. A selection of tools from Geilfus and others have been adapted in a series of participatory instruments that can support agrobiodiversity management, crop improvement and seed sector development. The structure is basically derived from this book. The examples and selection of tools have been inspired on actual experiences during courses on participatory crop improvement, seed sector development, and local management of agrobiodiversity as organised by Wageningen International over the last 10 years. Some other tools are derived form other sources. The tools have been tested in local projects in various countries in South America (Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela), West Africa (Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon and Côte d’Ivoire), Ethiopia, Nepal and India. The guide has been designed is such a way that it is easy to use as a reference in the field. The sequence of the tools is similar to that often used in participatory analysis, starting with general tools, moving to tools providing more details on specific topics, and going up to more analytical tools that can be applied with communities, but also can assist the facilitation team in analysing (after the diagnosis) the information gathered. However, which tools to apply, what type with whom, in what sequence, depends very much on the setting and the objectives of the exercise. Please, consider this no recipe book, but rather a kit with tools you can or may use. We consider the guide an inspiration to encourage you in adapting, merging and thereby designing your own tools

Integrated Seed Sector Development in Africa: A conceptual Framework for Creating Coherence Between Practices, Programs, and Policies

Public sector seed programs in most sub-Saharan African countries targeted the dissemination of quality seed of improved varieties in the 1970 and '80s, assuming that the informal seed system would disappear. The orientation in 1990s shifted toward withdrawal of the public sector, promoting privatization and liberalization of the seed market. The informal seed system remained dominant. Integrated seed sector development aims to better link informal and formal seed systems, and balance public and private sector involvement. It explores variation among seed value chains, with the aim of making seed programs and policies more coherent with farmers' practices and more effective at reaching food security