Pollinator-friendly farms : Principles and practices for pollinator-friendlier farming

The publication is a guide for farmers. The first half is background information about pollinators in Finland, including what types, their importance to food and agriculture, and the threats they face due to agriculture. The second half of the guide defines pollintor-friendly farming and provides practical actions farmers can take to make their own farms more pollinator-friendly

Exploring cultural acceptability of a hypothetical results-based agri-environment payment for grassland biodiversity

Results-oriented payment approaches are a means to deliver ecological results in agri-environment schemes. The results-based approach requires that farmers understand the meaning of the expected ecological results, and the approach and goals should be culturally acceptable. We interviewed 20 farmers in Finland about a hypothetical results-based payment scheme for biodiversity conservation that builds on an existing grassland fallow scheme. We explored i) how the ‘managing for nature values’ approach fits with ‘good farming’ ideal, ii) whether farmers would be able to operationalize ecological results, for which they would be rewarded, and iii) whether the results-based payment approach enhances or dilutes the current ‘good farmer’ ideal held by the farmers. We used ‘good farming’, cultural scripts, and the visibility of nature to farmers to explore these questions. The ‘tidy farm’ cultural script dominated, but farmers also described their farms as having space for non-production elements. Visibility of nature to farmers varied, field visits with farmer and researchers together resulted in increased enthusiasm for farmers seeing biodiversity as an outcome that they can produce. The grassland fallow fits farmers’ conceptualisations of ‘good farming’, and the results-based payment approach is culturally acceptable. Farmers’ activities show nature values have a place in their conceptualisation of ‘good farming’. We identified four categories of farmers based on their integration of ecological results into farming. These are nature values: 1) central to farmer thinking, 2) well-integrated, 3) viewed positively, but with limited actions and, 4) mainly absent.Peer reviewe

Fodder Productivity and Quality in Two Coastal Seashore Meadows in Eastern Uusimaa, Finland

Productivity and quality of two grazed coastal seashore meadows in Eastern Uusimaa were examined between May and July, 2002. A total of 18 1m2 sample sites divided into four separate cutting regimes were cut by hand to simulate grazing in the meadow. cutting regimes of various intensities were used to simulate the short term effects of different grazing pressures on the quality and productivity of the vascular plant forage in the meadows. Samples were dried, weighed and analysed for digestibility and composition. Digestibility analysis was carried out using in vitro digestibility analysis. A CNS- 1000 Elemental Analyzer was used to measure carbon, nitrogen and sulphur content of selected samples. The results showed that cumulative above ground phytomass productivity (AGPP) was dependent upon both biotope and cutting regime in the large (40 ha) Bosgård meadow, and that interaction betweeen these two factors was significant. The results of the smaller (<2 ha) Majvik meadow were highly variable between replicates. This variation overshadowed possible effects of biotope and cutting regime and their interaction. Quality was dependent upon both biotope and cutting regime. D-value decreased over time

Farmers as Managers of Traditional Rural Biotopes : management motivations and policy implications

ABSTRACT Traditional rural biotopes are high nature value (HNV) farmlands that include grazed forests, woodlands, and semi-natural meadows formed through traditional agricultural practices. Agricultural intensification and associated changes in demographics and land use have resulted in a decline in traditional rural biotopes throughout Europe. Despite the downward trend, some farmers still do manage traditional rural biotopes. Literature in farmer behavior variously suggests that agency and structural factors determine farmer decision-making and conservation behavior, and that farmers engage in farming styles according to their own values. The objectives of this research are to 1) understand what motivates farmers and landowners to manage traditional rural biotopes, 2) test whether managers differ in motivation, knowledge or structural factors according to whether the traditional rural biotopes are used in the farming system or managed separately from it as conservation sites or landscape elements, and 3) explore conservation tools and frameworks that might be used to improve policy and agri-extension services for conservation and management of traditional rural biotopes. The purpose of this thesis is to provide support to traditional rural biotope conservation in agriculture by furthering knowledge about manager behavior and motivations and to add to the literature on farmer conservation behavior more broadly with management of traditional rural biotopes as a focus for understanding farmer conservation related decision-making. The thesis is based on a two-part study in which research was carried out via postal questionnaires and interviews with farmers in Raasepori Municipality, on the southern coast of Finland. In the first part of the study, I sent postal questionnaires to all farms in Raasepori to identify farms with managed traditional rural biotopes. I asked farmers about activities on their farms to determine whether farmers managing traditional rural biotopes differed from other farmers according to nature-based activities or entrepreneurship and to determine whether non-agricultural activities take place on traditional rural biotopes. I considered the results in the context of existing extension services and agri-environmental schemes and explored how holistic conservation tools and approaches, including adaptive management, and social-ecological systems could be used to improve services for farmers engaged in TRB management. In the second part of the study, I conducted in-depth semi-structured interviews with TRB managers to determine whether sites were managed as part of the farming system or apart from it, motivations for managing traditional rural biotopes, interest and knowledge of conservation of traditional rural biotopes and experiences with extension and inspection services. I tested whether managers who used traditional rural biotopes in their farming system differed from those who did not and examined farmer engagement in traditional rural biotope management according to two sociological theories used in studying farmer behavior: theory of planned behavior and farming styles. I also compare summary findings of management activities to an inventory carried out by Pykälä and Bonn (2000) and present evidence of non-agricultural direct-use benefits (direct use ecosystem services) provided by traditional rural biotopes. Results indicate that farmers mainly manage traditional rural biotopes for intrinsic values, especially of open landscape, and are less motivated by extrinsic values such as fodder production or collecting special agri-environmental subsidies. Farmers with managed traditional rural biotopes are more likely to engage in entrepreneurship activities that bring the public to their farms or result in branding of their products. Findings support the theory of planned behavior insofar as agency and personal values are important to decision-making. Managers of traditional rural biotopes do not form a distinct farming style, but a group of farmers was identified whose farming system is based on managing traditional rural biotopes and direct sale of the traditional rural biotope products, was identified as a distinct farming style. We called it TRB entrepreneurship . Implications of the findings for extension services and policy development are that farmers and landowners engaged in management should be viewed as partners in conservation and that adaptive management and understanding of manager heterogeneity should be used to develop and target extension services and conservation strategies

Probing the grounds: Developing a payment-by-results agri-environment scheme in Finland

Results-oriented approaches are widely regarded as an effective means to improving cost-effectiveness of agri-climate-environment schemes. We designed a hypothetical payment-by-results scheme for biodiversity conservation on environmental grasslands in Finland. The scheme would pay farmers a premium if the site contains a set number of indicator species, which were selected based on vascular plant surveys of the target habitat type. We presented the hypothetical scheme to 20 farmers and six experts (researchers, officials and advisors) in agricultural policy for their opinions on the payment-by-result approach generally and the hypothetical scheme specifically. The indicator species list proved suitable for identifying sites with high total species richness of vascular plants and also appeared feasible in the eyes of the farmers. Farmers were mostly positive about the approach and, mainly, thought their peers and society at large would receive it positively. The main concerns were about implementation, especially verifying the biodiversity results. People working for the national control body were the most critical and could not see how the hypothetical scheme could fit into the current institutionalised programme. Experience in other countries may provide solutions for overcoming such obstacles. The results are highly relevant for a discourse on social experimentation and cost-efficient delivery of public goods for public money.Peer reviewe

Transition towards Circular Economy in the Food System

Growing population and increased demand for food, inefficient resource use and food distribution, environmental impacts, and high rates of food wasted at all stages of the food system are all calling for transition towards more sustainable practices. In this article we apply the concept of circular economy to the case of a sustainable food system. Furthermore, we explore the transition towards a circular food system through the lens of socio-technical transition theory towards sustainability. We discuss challenges and potential solutions for the production stage (focusing on nutrient flow), the consumption stage (focusing on meat consumption), and food waste and surplus management and prevention.Peer reviewe

Developing ecosystem service indicators: experiences and lessons learned from sub-global assessments and other initiatives

People depend upon ecosystems to supply a range of services necessary for their survival and well-being. Ecosystem service indicators are critical for knowing whether or not these essential services are being maintained and used in a sustainable manner, thus enabling policy makers to identify the policies and other interventions needed to better manage them. As a result, ecosystem service indicators are of increasing interest and importance to governmental and inter-governmental processes, including amongst others the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Aichi Targets contained within its strategic plan for 2011-2020, as well as the emerging Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES). Despite this growing demand, assessing ecosystem service status and trends and developing robust indicators is o!en hindered by a lack of information and data, resulting in few available indicators. In response, the United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC), together with a wide range of international partners and supported by the Swedish International Biodiversity Programme (SwedBio)*, undertook a project to take stock of the key lessons that have been learnt in developing and using ecosystem service indicators in a range of assessment contexts. The project examined the methodologies, metrics and data sources employed in delivering ecosystem service indicators, so as to inform future indicator development. This report presents the principal results of this project

Maanviljelijöiden luonto : Tilatason päätöksenteko maatalousalueiden luonnonsuojelutavoitteista

Farming has indelibly shaped the landscapes and cultures of Europe. Agriculturally marginal areas tend to host the highest amount of endangered species and are also the most at risk of abandonment as traditional agriculture is replaced by intensive high yield production. Farmlands with particularly strong habitat function, especially for species of European conservation concern, are priorities in European agri-environmental policy, and farmers are eligible for payments in exchange for management of such farmlands. Farmers are the key actors in agro-ecosystems and are motivated by a range of factors. Research increasingly supports calls for improving farmland conservation through better engagement with farmers to engender long-term attitudinal change and improve efficiency of agri-environmental payments. The aims of this thesis are to 1) examine farmers’ behaviour and decision-making as it applies to farmland conservation targets in Finland, and 2) explore how an approach addressing both social and ecological dimensions of conservation on farmland could be used to (potentially) improve outcomes. I examine farm-level decision-making using two cases: i) management of semi-natural grazed woodlands and meadows, collectively known as traditional rural biotopes, and ii) potential for a results-based approach to paying farmers for achieving biodiversity targets. Research was carried out in southern Finland. For traditional rural biotopes, I focus on farmer motivations and the benefits farmers receive from management of the sites. In the second case, I use a hypothetical results-based measure based on an existing, low threshold measure called nature management grassland. The cases represent two contrasting modes of policy delivery, where traditional rural biotopes are governed through demanding schemes by a small number of farmers (‘narrow and deep’), while long-term nature management grasslands are managed via low-threshold supports with high level of uptake (‘broad and shallow’). The study is grounded in agroecology, a multidisciplinary field. I use approaches and tools from the social sciences (interviews and questionnaires, thematic analysis) and ecology (species survey), and I approach the research from the position of wanting to understand the views and strategies that go into farmer participation (or not) for nature conservation on farmlands. The studies revealed high heterogeneity within the populations studied (e.g. in behaviour, farming styles, and farm structure). A variety of reasons were found for managing traditional rural biotopes (II). Farmers participated in the existing grassland fallow scheme mainly for convenience as a low-threshold subsidy type for fallows, and are not used to thinking about achieving biodiversity or other results through the scheme (III, IV). The ‘tidy landscape’ narrative was evident in both studies and impacted management decisions (II, IV). Farmers with a disposition toward managing for nature values were found in both studies (II, IV), and a particular farming style, ‘traditional rural biotope entrepreneur’ was also identified (II). Evidence was found for ecological and cultural feasibility for the results-based approach.Maatalous on muovannut pysyvästi Euroopan maisemia ja kulttuureja. Maanviljelyn kannalta heikosti tuottavilla alueilla elää tavallisesti enemmän uhanalaisia lajeja, ja nämä alueet ovat myös suurimmassa vaarassa kadota perinteisen maanviljelyksen väistyessä tehotuotannon alta. Euroopassa harjoitetussa maatalouden ympäristöpolitiikassa keskeisellä sijalla ovat viljelysmaat, jotka ovat suojelun kannalta merkittävien lajien osalta erityisen tärkeitä elinympäristöjä, ja maanviljelijät voivat saada tukea tällaisten alueiden hoitoon. Maanviljelijät ovat avainasemassa maatalouden ekosysteemien hoidossa, johon heitä motivoivat useat eri tekijät. Tutkimus tukee yhä enemmän viljelysmaiden suojelun kehittämistä edistämällä maanviljelijöiden aktiivista osallistumista ja luomalla siten pitkän tähtäimen asenteellisia muutoksia sekä tehostamalla maatalouden ympäristötukien käyttöä. Tämän väitöskirjan tavoitteena on 1) tarkastella maanviljelijöiden toimintaa ja päätöksentekoa maatalousmaiden suojelutavoitteiden osalta Suomessa sekä 2) selvittää, miten maatalousmaiden suojelun sosiaaliset ja ekologiset ulottuvuudet huomioiva lähestymistapa voi (potentiaalisesti) parantaa tuloksia. Tarkastelen väitöskirjassani maatilatasolla tapahtuvaa päätöksentekoa kahdessa eri prosessissa: i) osittain luonnontilaisten, laidunnettujen metsä- ja niittyalueiden eli perinnebiotooppien hoidossa, ja ii) tulosperusteisessa lähestymistavassa, jossa maanviljelijöille maksetaan tukea luonnon monimuotoisuuteen liittyvien tavoitteiden saavuttamisen perusteella. Tutkimus toteutettiin Etelä-Suomessa. Perinnebiotooppien osalta olen keskittynyt maanviljelijöitä motivoiviin tekijöihin sekä hyötyihin, joita maanviljelijät saavat alueiden hoidosta. Jälkimmäisen tutkimuskohteen osalta tarkastelen hypoteettista tulosperusteista ympäristötukea, joka perustuu nykyiseen luonnonhoitopelto-nimikkeellä tunnettuun matalan kynnyksen ympäristötukeen. Nämä tapaukset edustavat kahta eri toimintatapaa, joista toisessa perinnebiotooppeja hoidetaan vaativien ohjelmien mukaisesti muutamien maanviljelijöiden toimesta, kun taas pitkäaikainen luonnonhoitopeltojen hoito tapahtuu matalan kynnyksen tukijärjestelmien kautta korkealla käyttöasteella. Tutkimus perustuu agroekologiaan, joka on monitieteellinen ala. Käytän tutkimuksessa lähestymistapoja ja työkaluja yhteiskuntatieteiden (haastattelut ja kyselyt, aihekohtainen analyysi) ja ekologian (lajistokartoitus) aloilta, ja lähestyn tutkimusta lähtökohtanani halu ymmärtää niitä näkemyksiä ja strategioita, jotka vaikuttavat maanviljelijöiden osallistumiseen (tai osallistumattomuuteen) maatalousmaiden luonnonsuojeluun. Tutkimukset osoittivat merkittävää heterogeenisyyttä tutkimuksen kohteena olevissa populaatioissa (esim. maanviljelystavoissa ja maatilojen rakenteissa). Perinnebiotooppien hoidolle löytyi monia syitä (II). Maanviljelijät osallistuivat olemassa olevaan luonnonhoitopeltojen hoito-ohjelmaan pääasiassa siksi, että kokivat sen helppona matalan kynnyksen maataloustukena, eivätkä he ole tottuneet ajattelemaan luonnon monimuotoisuuden tai muiden tulosten saavuttamista ohjelman kautta (III, IV). Ajatus ’siististä maisemasta’ näkyi selkeänä molemmissa tutkimuksissa ja vaikutti hoitoon liittyvään päätöksentekoon (II, IV). Molemmissa tutkimuksissa havaittiin maanviljelijöitä, jotka lähestyivät toimintaa luontoarvojen pohjalta (II, IV), minkä lisäksi tunnistettiin myös erityinen ’perinnebiotooppiyrittäjän’ maanviljelysmalli (II). Tutkimuksessa löydettiin näyttöä tulosperusteisen lähestymistavan ekologisen ja kulttuurisen toteutettavuuden puolesta

Pollinator-Friendly Farms : Principles and practices for pollinator-friendlier farming

Oppaan tavoitteena on esitellä pölyttäjäystävällinen maatila -konsepti suomalaisille viljelijöille sekä kasvattaa viljelijöiden tietämystä ja osaamista, jotta jokainen viljelijä voisi kehittää maatilaansa pölyttäjäystävällisemmäksi. Oppaassa tutustutaan taustatietoon Suomen pölyttäjistä ja pölytyksen merkityksestä maataloudelle, esitetään tutkimustietoa ja asiantuntijoiden näkemyksiä, ja neuvotaan parhaat toimenpiteet ja ratkaisut maatilojen pölyttäjäystävällisyyden kehittämiseksi. Opas on jaettu kahteen osaan. Ensimmäinen osa, “Pölytys ja pölyttäjät”, sisältää teoriaa ja taustoitusta pölyttäjistä ja niiden merkityksestä peltoekosysteemissä. Siinä perehdytään pölytyksen merkitykseen ja pölyttäjäkadon ilmiöön, sekä tutustutaan pölyttäjiin sekä niiden tilaan ja haasteisiin. Toinen osa, “Pölyttäjäystävällinen maatila”, on ratkaisukeskeinen. Tässä osassa määritellään pölyttäjäystävällisen maatilan piirteitä ja esitellään toimenpiteitä, joilla voi tehdä oman tilansa pölyttäjäystävällisemmäksi. Päätekstin lisäksi oppaassa syvennytään eri aiheisiin esimerkkien avulla.The publication is a guide for farmers. The first half is background information about pollinators in Finland, including what types, their importance to food and agriculture, and the threats they face due to agriculture. The second half of the guide defines pollintor-friendly farming and provides practical actions farmers can take to make their own farms more pollinator-friendly