An Examination of Spinoza’s Moral Philosophy

Spinoza's moral philosopher represents his most concerted attempt to come to terms with the great philosophical questions of the existence and identity of God, the nature and origin of the human mind concerning God, the origin and nature of emotions, the power of emotions as they restrict freedom of choice. His ethics is derived from his metaphysics and psychology. His belief that everything emanates from a perfect and infinite God made him conclude that evil does not exist. Further, he argues that anything that happens could have happened otherwise since it emanated from the unchangeable laws of nature. The surest part of happiness according to Spinoza is the study of philosophy and meditation. Arising from the foregoing, this discourse views Spinoza's doctrine as running contrary to human nature. For maintaining that everything is fated and determined including human disposition implies that all human actions can, therefore, be said to be amoral. The corollary of the above is that institutions such as law court, police, prisons, and judiciary, Christianity and Islam are superfluous, irrational and serving no purpose. Consequently, his postulates smack of a moral lacun

Improving Bovine Productivity in Central Africa: The case of Goudali Zebu Cattle under Ranching Conditions in Western Highland Sudan-Savannah of Cameroon

The Central Africa bloc of nations\u2019 cattle industry needs to be developed. One essential input ingredient identified by stakeholders is the need for a constant supply of seedstock cattle of good quantity and quality and sustainable nutrition. Given the current orientation towards a boost in production that can meet up local demands as well as generate beef export among member states; the need for adaptable breeds with much more specific information on beef products derived from the different systems of husbandry is emerging. Prevailing cattle production systems are muzzled by scarcity of affordable protein feeds. In this study we explored the suitability of use of low-toxic Jatropha curcas as a novel ruminant protein feed integrator and assessed the beef production performance of autochthonous Zebu Goudali beef-type cattle crossbred with the Italian Simmental and attempted an evaluation of the two cattle genotypes for prevalence and dermatophillosis- resistance allele markers under low input system of the Western highlands plateau Savannah of Cameroon; a cattle hotspot in the Central Africa. There is a copious amount of information on the suitable level of introgression of exotic inheritance on indigenous cattle in low input production systems as a strategy to improve on their productivity. These studies indicate that; milk production, reproduction, growth performance and milk composition traits were all in favour of the 50% exotic cross. On behalf of FAO, Cunningham and Syrstad (1987) made an extensive analysis of results from crossbreeding in the tropics. Their clear conclusion was that consistent improvements in most performance traits were achieved in \u2018upgrading\u2019 cattle to as much as 50% with temperate breeds even though a smaller amount of study showed levels of introgression greater than 50% to be more important. A study in Brazil, Madalena et al. (1990), supports these findings in general, but found the 62.5% levelto be optimal. Results may, however, vary according to environmental conditions and traits studied. More recent studies involving meta-analysis of increasingly large numbers of results from the literature (McDowell et al. 1996; Syrstad, 1996; and Rege, 1998) as well as analysis of individual long-term studies in Asia (Jadhav et al., 199l), Africa (Rege et al., 1994; Thorpe et al., 1993) and Latin America (Madalena et al., 1990) have confirmed the previous results. A general conclusion is, though, that crossbreeding to produce animals with up to 50% of the genes from temperate breeds can be recommended where crossbreeding is an option for genetic improvement. Crosses with less than 50% B. taurus genes have been found to be poor dairy animals (Syrstad, 1992). \u2003 Our investigation indicated that feeding Jatropha curcas cake up to levels of 4 mg of phorbol ester/day do not pose any evidence of pathology to small ruminants. Inclusions beyong 6 mg/day in the diet can pose deleterious health effects to the animals. Thus validating the potential role of Jatropha curcas protein integrator as an alternative and affordable protein source for ruminant nutrition. On the crossbreeding component of our studies rather than looking at the impact of level of introgression of the Italian Simmental blood on autochthonous Goudali Zebu cattle; we devoted the major part of it to assessing under the Western Highland Plateau Savannah explored genetic markers of adaptability of autochthonous cattle breed and their 50% bloodline crossbred with the Italian Simmental to Dermatophilus congolensis, and the production performance values of their carcass and meat characteristics; in a context where these information are scanty. We observed that thoroughbred Goudali (G) young bulls show much lower in vivo and at slaughter performance than their crosses with Italian Simmental breed (SG) and that clinical dermatophilosis is common among G and SG cattle in the western highland plateau savannah of Central Africa and resistance cannot be predicted solely on the variability of BoLA-DRB3 gene. In addition, the results highlight the potential of optimising heterosis and maternal effects by improving bull\u2019s transfer and pre-slaughter conditions. The study, within a broader whole supply value chain approach, validates the relationship between low-toxic Jatropha curcas cake, environmental adaptability; with respect to endemic dermatophilosis and livestock productivity improvement. This, considering the lowering effect on sector environmental footprints, increasing its feedstock flexibility and security while improving the social acceptance of both Jatropha curcas cultivation and intensive animal breeding as well as invoking the need for an increase in the level of animal productivity and welfare along the beef production value chain in Central Afric

Le bilinguisme officiel (français-anglais) au Cameroun : un problème d’aménagement efficace

Le bilinguisme officiel (français-anglais) au Cameroun : un problème d'aménagement efficace — Cette étude vise à vérifier l'étendue de la prépondérance exclusive du français et de l'anglais dans la communication au sein de l'État camerounais, en raison de certaines contradictions (Renaud 1979 et 1987). Ces langues officielles sont censées y assurer les fonctions les plus hautes en présence de 236 langues autochtones. Ces dernières sont-elles réellement absentes des services publics? Quelles sont les attitudes des Camerounais envers elles et leurs communautés constitutionnelles respectives? Quelle serait une politique linguistique réaliste pour le Cameroun? Pour répondre à ces questions, nous avons, en 1993, soumis à 590 personnes dans les chefs-lieux administratifs des dix provinces du pays, un questionnaire fermé sur leurs choix de langue et les attentes linguistiques perçues par eux dans leurs contacts officiels. L'analyse des données a révélé l'existence d'une concurrence participative reflétant l'élargissement fonctionnel des langues non officielles. Une tension y est apparue entre le français et l'anglais, mais elle reflète les conflits politiques ambiants.S'agissant des attitudes, le répondant devait porter son jugement sur les langues officielles et leurs communautés constitutionnelles respectives, par rapport à sept différenciateurs sémantiques inspirés de Gardner et Smythe (1976). L'analyse révèle : une haute appréciation des répondants de chaque communauté pour leur première langue officielle, l'évaluation négative de leur deuxième langue officielle par les anglophones, l'apparition des stéréotypes négatifs envers le pidgin, et la meilleure image que les anglophones auraient de leur communauté.La concurrence participative entre langues officielles et non officielles, le nationalisme et la volonté d'ouverture des Camerounais, ainsi que leur aspiration à voir les hautes fonctions étendues aux langues locales, nous ont amené à proposer l'alphabétisation fonctionnelle en langues locales, pour la nécessaire valorisation des langues endogènes, dans un contexte minimisant la confrontation avec les langues officielles, et consacrant le passage du culturel à l'économique.Official Bilingualism (French-English) in Cameroon : A Question of Efficient Planning — This study aims at a verification of the extent of exclusive predominant usage of French and English in public offices in Cameroon, in communication within the Cameroonian State, since some contradictions exist (Renaud, 1979 and 1987). The official languages are supposed to assume the highest functions among 236 home languages. Are these actually absent from public services? What are the attitudes of Cameroonians toward these official languages and their respective communities as per the Cameroon Constitution? What would be a realistic language policy for Cameroon?To answer these questions, a closed survey on language choices and perceived expectations in official contacts was submitted in 1993 to 590 persons in the administrative headquarters of Cameroon's ten provinces. Data analysis showed participative competition as a reflection of a widening of functions assumed by non official languages. Tension between French and English was noticed, as a manifestation of local political conflicts.As concerns attitudes, those surveyed were asked to express their judgment on official languages and their respective communities, according to seven semantic differentials taken from Gardner and Smythe (1976). The analysis revealed : high levels of appreciation by members of each community, of their first official language, a negative evaluation by Anglophones of their second official language, the negative stereotypes of Pidgin English, a better image of their own community as perceived by Anglophones.On account of the participative competition between official and non official languages, the nationalism and open-mindedness of Cameroonians, as well as their aspiring to a widening of higher linguistic functions to include home languages, functional literacy in local languages is recommended, as a means to solve the necessary enhancement of endogenous languages, with minimal confrontation with official languages, as a consecration of an evolution from the cultural to the economic aspect of language

Ethnopharmacology of human immunodeficiency virus in South Africa–a minireview

Infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the etiologic agent of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), continues to pose an unprecedented public health problem of enormous proportions worldwide. Current treatment options for HIV/AIDS have not been satisfactory and the quest for effective curative or preventive therapies goes on. Plants are increasingly seen as an alternative source for the discovery of novel anti-HIV molecules. Africa, particularly southern Africa, endowed with a rich diversity of medicinal plants, represents the region of the world worse hit by HIV. Anecdotal evidence of the therapeutic benefits to AIDS patients of some plant-derived preparations abound. This mini-review takes a look at the evaluations of South African medicinal plants to determine their effects on HIV/AIDS, and the initial attempts at the isolation and characterization of putative anti-HIV molecules

Supervision as an instrument of teaching – learning effectiveness: challenge for the Nigerian practice

There are gaps in teacher preparation in Nigeria, such as limited contents of teaching subjects as well as deficiencies in pedagogy and length of practice, which affect the quality of instruction in Nigerian schools. There is, therefore, need for the supervisor, who should be knowledgeable, committed and tactful enough to sense teachers’ failings, suggest appropriate solutions and evaluate the progress of corrective programmes, in order to achieve improved school instruction. This paper presents models to analyze the capabilities of individual teachers, schools and educational systems for supervising teachers for improved instruction in school.KEY WORDS: supervisor, model, instruction, school programme, techniques, and supervisio

Immune pressure analysis of protease and reverse transcriptase genes of primary HIV-1 subtype C isolates from South Africa

Synonymous (ds) and non-synonymous (dn) substitution rates and their ratios (ds/dn) were analyzed for 33 HIV-1 subtype C protease (PR) and reverse transcriptase (RT) nucleotide sequences each from antiretroviral naïve South African chronically infected individuals. The ds/dn ratios were calculated using the synonymous/non-synonymous analysis programme (SNAP). The ds/dn ratio for PR was found to be 5.3801, while for RT it was 8.6098. The RT had a higher ds/dn ratio when compared with PR, suggesting a greater conservation in the RT gene. Generally, these values point to proteins that have not been subjected to strong immune pressure. Analysis of the evolutionary distance of PR and RT based on synonymous and non-synonymous mutations was done by phylogenetic analysis. The clustering of viruses was different when synonymous and non-synonymous substitutions were considered in both gene regions. Overall, the data indicated that the viruses had not experienced high immune pressure at the time the sequences were obtained. It may also mean that, the PR and the RT of the sequences did not present enough epitopes to elicit antibody responses.Key words: HIV-1 subtype C, chronic infection, immune pressure, protease gene, reverse transcriptase gene, South Africa

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF FAIR VALUE AND HISTORICAL COST ACCOUNTING ON REPORTED PROFIT: A STUDY OF SELECTED MANUFACTURING COMPANIES IN NIGERIA

This study aimed to critically examine the effects of fair value accounting and historical cost accounting on the reported profits. However, since the major objective of any business organization is to make profit and continue in business, what they face in the course of doing their business and the method of accounting they use in reporting their profit may make this noble objective to be unrealistic particularly during inflationary period. Data were collected from both primary and secondary sources and presented and analyzed using ordinary least square. The study revealed that both historical cost and fair-value accounting have significant effect on reported profit. Conclusively, Based on the findings of the study, it is concluded that the amount calculated as depreciation, charged as taxes and paid as dividends greatly influence the operating profit of the company. This simply means that the method of profit measurement will greatly influence the amount charged as taxes, depreciation and dividend on the profit of the company. The study recommended that companies should prepare their financial report using both historical cost and fair-value methods simultaneously. This will allow the companies to know the true financial position of their companies before declaring dividend and other benefits. Keywords: Current Cost, Depreciation, Dividend, Fair Value, Historical Cos

Human Resource Valuation and the Performance of Selected Banks in Nigeria

This study examines human resource valuation and the performance of selected banks in Nigeria. Human resources are the only factor of production that is not recognized in the reporting mechanisms, despite an interest dating back to the 1960s. In other to investigate the above  issues, the researcher gathered data from Nigerian banks listed in the Nigeria Stock Exchange (NSE) using a survey design. The data were then tabulated and analyzed using Ordinary Least Square (OLS). The study revealed that all the variables of human resource valuation used are statistically significant. Conclusively, human resources cost approach to corporate performance measurement which have gained substantial attention and use in recent years provides further opportunities for utilization of human resource accounting measures. The study therefore, recommended that banks should use career management programs to assist their employees in career planning. A well-functioning company career planning system would encourage employees to take more responsibility for their own development, including the development of skills viewed as significant in the bank. Finally, banks should note that career planning system not only helps ensure that employees have the skills they need to advance in the bank, but also may help ensure that employees possess the mix of skills that the firm believes is important for its future success.Keywords: Human Resources, Human Asset, Cost Based Valuation, Economic Valuation and Market Based Valuatio

A Markov model for the effects of virological failure on HIV/AIDS progression in tuberculosis co-infected patients receiving antiretroviral therapy in a rural clinic in northern South Africa

Background. The goal of antiretroviral therapy (ART) is to suppress viral replication to undetectable levels. These low viral load (VL) levels may not be attained in some patients, a situation representing potential virological failure during the course of treatment.Objectives. To present the results of a Markov model exploring how virological failure and active tuberculosis (TB) affect the progression of HIV in patients on ART.Methods. A continuous-time non-homogeneous Markov model was used to model the progression of HIV/AIDS in patients on combination ART (cART). We define seven states in our model. The first five states are based on VL levels and the other two are absorbing states: death and withdrawal from the study. The effects of TB co-infection, baseline VL, lactic acidosis and treatment failure on transition intensities were assessed.Results. The model shows that VL-based transition intensities do not follow a constant rate; rather, there are two different trends in HIV/AIDS progression. The first trend is an increase in the prevalence of state 1 (undetectable VL levels) in the first 0.5 years of treatment. The second trend follows thereafter and shows a slow decrease. Within the first 0.5 years of therapeutic intervention, the undetectable VL state is therefore attainable from any VL state. However, when virological failure occurs, there is an increased risk of death. Developing active TB while on cART increases the risk of viral rebound from undetectable levels to VLs between 50 and 10 000 copies/mL by ~1.03-fold. From a VL between 10 000 and 100 000 copies/mL, developing TB while on cART increases the rate of viral rebound by ~2.5-fold. However, if TB is detected and treated at enrolment, rates of viral rebound from undetectable levels are reduced.Conclusions. The model confirms that virological failure, coupled with developing active TB while on cART, increases mortality rates irrespective of patient CD4+ count status. It also suggests that while TB at the time of cART initiation does not increase the risk of viral rebound, development of active TB after cART initiation does increase this risk. These findings highlight the importance of strengthening VL monitoring, which should be performed every 2 months, especially in patients with TB, and addressing unsuppressed VLs appropriately if they are detected.

Phenolic content distribution and antioxidant activities of Terminalia sericea Burch

Background: Terminalia sericea has been used traditionally for the treatment of diseases associated with oxidative stress. This study was aimed at determining the distribution of phenols in the leaves, stem bark and root bark of Terminalia sericea and their antioxidant activity.Materials and methods: Hot and cold water, methanol/acetone extracts were evaluated for their total phenolic content (TPC), flavone/flavonol content (FFC), flavonone/dihydroflavone content (FDFC), hydroxycinnamic acid derivative content (HCAC) and tannin content (TC). DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) free radicals and reducing power assays were used to assess the antioxidant activity.Results: The leaves had the highest average TPC (440) expressed in milligram Gallic Acid Equivalent (mgCAE) /gram of the extract. The leaves also had the highest average TC (7.14) expressed in milligram Quercetin Equivalent (mgQE) /gram of the extract. The stem had the highest average FDFC (19.23 mgQE/g) while the root had the highest average FFC (74.76 mgQE/g) and HCAC (214.57) expressed in milligram Caffeic Acid Equivalent mgCAE/ gram of the extract. The stem exhibited the highest average DPPH free radical scavenging (9.85 μg/mL) and reducing power (6.01 μg/mL) activities. Water was a better extracting solvent for TPC and FDFC while methanol/acetone was a better extracting solvent for FFC and HCAC. The correlation between TC and reducing power activity (r=0.668) at P < 0.05 suggests that tannins were responsible for the antioxidant activity.Conclusion: This study has shown that the distribution of phenolics differs in the organs of T. sericea, and could affect the quality of medicinal products sold.Key words: Phenolic contents; Terminalia sericea; Antioxidant activity; Distribution studies