Potential externalities savings due to electric vehicle smart charge

This work focuses on the analysis developed in order to demonstrate how smart charging, using tailored control algorithms, contributes to minimize the environmental impact and economic costs associated to the electric vehicles under an LCA perspective. The analysis considers the Spanish grid mix profile and specific charging patterns.The LCA methodology adopted implies a comprehensive assessment of the impacts and costs occurring upstream and downstream the charging event. For the environmental analysis, the LCA impact categories are considered, while for the economic assessment, data regarding the costs associated to the electricity price and the pollutants generation have been adopted.Postprint (published version

Life cycle assessment of Li-Sulfur of batteries for electric vehicles

Postprint (published version

Comparison of the state of lithium-sulphur and lithium-ion batteries applied to electromobility

The market share in electric vehicles (EV) is increasing. This trend is likely to continue due to the increased interest in reducing CO2 emissions. The electric vehicle market evolution depends principally on the evolution of batteries capacity. As a consequence, automobile manufacturers focus their efforts on launching in the market EVs capable to compete with internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV) in both performance and economic aspects. Although EVs are suitable for the day-to-day needs of the typical urban driver, their range is still lower than ICEV, because batteries are not able to store and supply enough energy to the vehicle and provide the same autonomy as ICEV. EV use mostly Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries but this technology is reaching its theoretical limit (200–250¿Wh/kg). Although the research to improve Li-ion batteries is very active, other researches began to investigate alternative electrochemical energy storage systems with higher energy density. At present, the most promising technology is the Lithium-Sulphur (Li-S) battery. This paper presents a review of the state of art of Li-Sulphur battery on EVs compared to Li-ion ones, considering technical, modelling, environmental and economic aspects with the aim of depicting the challenges this technology has to overcome to substitute Li-ion in the near future. This study shows how the main drawbacks for Li-S concern are durability, self-discharge and battery modelling. However, from an environmental and economic point of view, Li-S technology presents many advantages over Li-ion.Peer ReviewedPreprin

The effects of lithium sulfur battery ageing on second-life possibilities and environmental life cycle assessment studies

The development of Li-ion batteries has enabled the re-entry of electric vehicles into the market. As car manufacturers strive to reach higher practical specific energies (550 Wh/kg) than what is achievable for Li-ion batteries, new alternatives for battery chemistry are being considered. Li-Sulfur batteries are of interest due to their ability to achieve the desired practical specific energy. The research presented in this paper focuses on the development of the Li-Sulfur technology for use in electric vehicles. The paper presents the methodology and results for endurance tests conducted on in-house manufactured Li-S cells under various accelerated ageing conditions. The Li-S cells were found to reach 80% state of health after 300–500 cycles. The results of these tests were used as the basis for discussing the second life options for Li-S batteries, as well as environmental Life Cycle Assessment results of a 50 kWh Li-S batteryPeer ReviewedPostprint (published version

Comparative life cycle assessment of Li-Sulphur and Li-ion batteries for electric vehicles

Nowadays, most of the electric vehicles (EVs) are powered by Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries due to their high energy density, higher power density and degree of development relative to other battery technologies. As Li-ion technology evolves and the EVs fleet increases, it is important to understand the environmental impacts of mass- producing the battery packs for EVs. However, with 80-150 Wh/kg energy density, current Li-ion batteries are not able to power the EVs for a comparable driving range with conventional vehicles. Lithium-sulphur (Li-S) batteries have emerged as promising battery technology, with a higher theoretical capacity and energy density than Li-ion batteries used today. Moreover, Li-S batteries presumably present a lower environmental profile due to their chemical composition compared to Li-ion ones. To verify this statement, this study performs a life cycle assessment (LCA) of Li-S battery cells (under industrial development at the moment) that have been scaled up accordingly to estimate their performance as a battery for EVs. This comparison will provide the impact of each battery and the potential benefits in terms of environmental impact indicator values of the Li-S technology. The impacts of the Li-S battery are compared with those of a Nickel-Cobalt-Manganese (NCM) battery under the same driving distance. The environmental impact assessment results show that Li-S batteries present a most favourable environmental profile compared to NCM batteries, especially in the natural resource depletion categories where the Li-S battery has 70%-90% lower values compared to the Li-ion one.Peer ReviewedPostprint (published version

Impactos ambientales del ciclo de vida de las baldosas cerámicas: análisis sectorial, identificación de estrategias de mejora y comunicación (I)

El artículo analiza el impacto ambiental que generan las baldosas cerámicas mediante el Análisis de Ciclo de Vida (AC) a nivel sectorial en el que participaron más de 50 empresas españolas. Los resultados han servido para la redacción de las Reglas de Categoría de Producto (RCP) para los recubrimientos de materiales cerámicos, necesarias para la edición de Declaraciones Ambientales de Producto. (Debido a la extensión del artículo recogeremos en esta edición la primera parte, correspondiente a la definición de objetivos y alcance del estudio y el análisis del inventario. La segunda parte, que consta de la evaluación de impactos e interpretación, la identificación de estrategias de mejora, la comunicación ambiental y las conclusiones se publicarán en el número 236 de Piscinas XXI).The article analyses the environmental impact of ceramic tiles by means of a sector-level Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) involving over 50 Spanish firms. The findings were then used to draw up the Product Category Rules (PCR) for ceramic coverings, which are needed to be able to issue Environmental Product Declarations. (Due to the length of the paper, in this edition we will include only the first part, which covers the definition of the aims and scope of the study, as well as the inventory analysis. The second part, which comprises the evaluation of the impacts and interpretation, the identification of the improvement strategies, environmental communication and the conclusions, will be published in issue 236 of Piscinas XXI.

Análisis de ciclo de vida de sistemas innovadores de almacenamiento eléctrico en litio-azufre (Li-S) para vehículos

The continuous and expected increase of electrification in the transport sector, the so-called "electromobility" revolution, is one of the main drivers of progress in energy storage for vehicle propulsion. Today's electric vehicles (EVs) use lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries due to their high energy density compared to other types of batteries. Current rechargeable lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries for EVs are capable of storing around 180 Wh/kg of energy density at cell level and 120 Wh/kg at battery level, while the typical consumption of one kg of petrol produces 3350 Wh of useful work. There is still a factor of 19 between the energy delivered by a kilo of petrol and 1 kg of battery (for example, the autonomy of a car with a similar weight that is powered by batteries is 5-10 times less than with petrol). Therefore, if we want to reach, or even approach, the goal of a 500 km autonomy with battery powered vehicles in the short term, it is necessary to research new materials and battery configurations. In this respect, lithium-Sulphur (Li-S) batteries are the closest battery technology capable of meeting these expectations. Despite the fact that solutions exist at a technical level, or are in the process of being implemented, to overcome the technological barriers which electric energy storage presents for EVs, their implementation on our roads remains a challenge and is below the expectations set out. One of the reasons why this implementation is not satisfactory is the high cost of electric vehicles, mainly due to the high cost of batteries. New electric storage technologies such as Li-S batteries must therefore take into account not only the technical factor for their design, but also strategies to be able to reuse them in a second life in order to reduce their potential cost and thus help reduce the price of the EV paid by the end user. Furthermore, in addition to offering a suitable technological solution and presenting itself as an economically viable alternative, it is necessary to study the impact on the environment produced throughout the life cycle of Li-S batteries. For this reason, this doctoral thesis focuses on the environmental analysis of all the stages of the life cycle of these batteries, from the scaling of Li-S button cells produced in the laboratory to a 50 kWh battery. The methodology used to calculate the environmental impacts of the batteries is the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) according to ISO 14040 and 14044:2006, which allows a quantitative evaluation of the environmental profile of the batteries for all the stages of their life cycle, emphasizing the most critical aspects that can be improved. In addition, the thesis has also dealt with issues related to the suitability of the batteries for use in second life, based on current experience with Li-ion batteries. To this end, on the one hand, ageing tests have been carried out on the cells to determine their behaviour and longevity. On the other hand, an economic evaluation has been made of the actions taken to dismantle a battery once its first life in the vehicle has ended, this being the first stage to prepare the battery for its second life in a secondary energy storage system. The results obtained from these analyses have served as a basis for establishing a framework for adding more information on the environmental performance of these batteries in Li-S. In addition, information has been provided in order to determine the feasibility of using this type of battery, not only in a first life in the electric vehicle, but also in its second life in a stationary application, and in this way to be able to follow the principles of the Circular Economy.El crecimiento continuo y previsto de la electrificación en el sector del transporte, la así llamada revolución de la "electromobilidad", es uno de los principales motores de los avances en el almacenamiento de energía destinado para la propulsión de vehículos. Los vehículos eléctricos (VE) actuales utilizan baterías de ion de litio (Li-ion) debido a su alta densidad energética respecto a otros tipos de baterías. Las actuales baterías de Li-ion recargables para VE son capaces de almacenar alrededor de 180 Wh / kg de densidad de energía a nivel de la celda y 120 Wh / kg a nivel de batería, mientras que el consumo típico de un kg de gasolina produce 3350 Wh de trabajo útil. Todavía hay un factor de 19 entre la energía entregada por un kilo de gasolina y 1 kg de batería (por ejemplo, una autonomía del automóvil con un peso similar que es impulsado por batería es 5-10 veces menor que con gasolina). Por lo tanto, si se quiere alcanzar, o incluso acercar, el objetivo de autonomía de 500 kilómetros con vehículos de baterías en el corto plazo es necesario investigar sobre nuevos materiales y configuraciones de baterías. A tal propósito, las baterías de litio-azufre (Li-S) son la tecnología de batería candidata a satisfacer estas expectativas. A pesar de que a nivel técnico existan soluciones, o estén en vías de implantación para superar las barreras tecnológicas que el almacenamiento de energía eléctrica presenta para VE, la implantación del VE en nuestras carreteras sigue siendo un reto y está por debajo a las expectativas previstas. Uno de los motivos por los cuales dicha implantación no está siendo satisfactoria es el alto coste de los vehículos eléctricos debido principalmente al alto coste de las baterías. Las nuevas tecnologías de almacenamiento eléctrico como las baterías de Li-S deben pues tener en cuenta no sólo el factor técnico para su diseño, sino también estrategias para poder ser reutilizadas en una segunda vida con el objetivo de reducir su coste potencial y de esta manera ayudar a la reducción del precio del VE que paga el usuario final. Por otro lado, además de ofrecer una solución tecnológica adecuada y de presentarse como una alternativa económicamente viable, debido al gran volumen de producción que se espera asociado a este sector en los próximos años, es necesario estudiar el impacto sobre el medio ambiente producido a lo largo del ciclo de vida de las baterías de Li-S. Por este motivo, esta tesis doctoral se centra en el análisis ambiental de todas las etapas del ciclo de vida de dichas baterías, a partir del escalado de celdas botón en Li-S producidas en laboratorio hasta una batería de 50 kWh. La metodología que se ha utilizado para calcular los impactos ambientales de las baterías es el Análisis de Ciclo de Vida (ACV) según las ISO 14040 y 14044:2006, que permite evaluar cuantitativamente el perfil ambiental de las baterías para todas las etapas de su ciclo de vida, haciendo hincapié en aquellos aspectos más críticos y que pueden ser sujetos a mejora. Además, la tesis también aborda los temas relativos a la adecuación de las baterías para su uso en segunda vida, partiendo de la experiencia actual con baterías de Li-ion. Para ello, por un lado, se han llevado a cabo ensayos de envejecimiento sobre las celdas para determinar su comportamiento y su longevidad. Por otro lado, se ha evaluado económicamente las acciones de desmontaje de una batería una vez que termina su primera vida en el vehículo, siendo esta la primera etapa para poder preparar la batería para su segunda vida en un sistema de almacenamiento energético secundario.Postprint (published version

Life-cycle Based Environmental Effects of 1.3 Mio. Electric Vehicles on the Road in 35 Countries - Facts & Figures from the IEA Technology Collaboration Program on Hybrid & Electric Vehicles

There is an international consensus that the environmental effect of electric vehicles can only be assessed with life cycle assessment (LCA) including production, operation and end of life treatment. A group of international experts working since 2011 on the LCA of Electric Vehicles in the Technical Collaboration Program on “Hybrid and Electric Vehicles of the International Energy Agency (IEA), estimated the environmental effects of the current worldwide electric vehicle fleet of about 1.3 million in 35 countries. The environmental effects assessed for electric vehicles are greenhouse gas emissions, acidification, ozone formation, particle matter emissions and primary energy consumption, which were compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles

Economic analysis of the disassembling activities to the reuse of electric vehicles Li-ion batteries

Electric vehicles (EVs) are massively entering the mobility services. However, the high costs of their batteries, and thus of the vehicles, represent a real barrier that refrain consumers from buying EVs. In order to reduce the EV costs, research on recovery battery to be reused in a second life for stationary use is being explored, as it this is expected to decrease the cost of these batteries (second life) is being considered for additional stationary uses. For this purpose, specific conditioning (disassembling and repurposing) activities on the battery need to be undertaken to enable a further use of Li-ion batteries once they have completed their duty life in a vehicle (first life). Since economy matters, the economic aspects of these activities need to be analysed to fully understand the economic feasibility of the second life as a key element to that will determine the success of the implementation of EVs. This paper investigates the current state of art of the disassembling activities by analysing the Smart ForFour Li-ion battery and provides insights of the costs of each disassembling operation, from battery level to cell level. Another key aspect will be the remanufacturing at battery level as it presents some advantages over either module or cell level such as a less time is required and consequently a fewer cost. On the other hand, the reuse at module level presents interesting advantages such as the chance to design more versatile and scalable solutions, which could be more interesting despite their initial drawbacks for many second life applications. Therefore, the disassembling costs will play an important role in the repurposed battery selling prices.Peer Reviewe