Integrated transcriptomic and proteomic analyses ofP. falciparumgametocytes: molecular insight into sex-specific processes and translational repression

Sexual differentiation of malaria parasites into gametocytes in the vertebrate host and subsequent gamete fertilization in mosquitoes is essential for the spreading of the disease. The molecular processes orchestrating these transitions are far from fully understood. Here, we report the first transcriptome analysis of male and female Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes coupled with a comprehensive proteome analysis. In male gametocytes there is an enrichment of proteins involved in the formation of flagellated gametes; proteins involved in DNA replication, chromatin organization and axoneme formation. On the other hand, female gametocytes are enriched in proteins required for zygote formation and functions after fertilization; protein-, lipid- and energy-metabolism. Integration of transcriptome and proteome data revealed 512 highly expressed maternal transcripts without corresponding protein expression indicating large scale translational repression in P. falciparum female gametocytes for the first time. Despite a high degree of conservation between Plasmodium species, 260 of these 'repressed transcripts' have not been previously described. Moreover, for some of these genes, protein expression is only reported in oocysts and sporozoites indicating that repressed transcripts can be partitioned into short- and long-term storage. Finally, these data sets provide an essential resource for identification of vaccine/drug targets and for further mechanistic studies

Removal of Heterologous Sequences from Plasmodium falciparum Mutants Using FLPe-Recombinase

Genetically-modified mutants are now indispensable Plasmodium gene-function reagents, which are also being pursued as genetically attenuated parasite vaccines. Currently, the generation of transgenic malaria-parasites requires the use of drug-resistance markers. Here we present the development of an FRT/FLP-recombinase system that enables the generation of transgenic parasites free of resistance genes. We demonstrate in the human malaria parasite, P. falciparum, the complete and efficient removal of the introduced resistance gene. We targeted two neighbouring genes, p52 and p36, using a construct that has a selectable marker cassette flanked by FRT-sequences. This permitted the subsequent removal of the selectable marker cassette by transient transfection of a plasmid that expressed a 37°C thermostable and enhanced FLP-recombinase. This method of removing heterologous DNA sequences from the genome opens up new possibilities in Plasmodium research to sequentially target multiple genes and for using genetically-modified parasites as live, attenuated malaria vaccines

Quantification of female and male Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes by reverse transcriptase quantitative PCR

The transmission of malaria parasites depends on the presence of sexual stages (gametocytes) in the blood, making the ratio and densities of female and male gametocytes important determinants of parasite fitness. This manuscript describes the development of reverse transcriptase quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) assays to separately quantify mature female and male gametocytes of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum, and reveals that Pfs25 mRNA is expressed only in female gametocytes. The female (Pfs25) and male (Pfs230p) gametocyte specific RT-qPCR assays have lower detection limits of 0.3 female and 1.8 male gametocytes per microlitre of blood, respectively, making them more sensitive than microscopy. Accurate quantification of the ratio and densities of female and male gametocytes will increase understanding of P. falciparum transmission and improve the evaluation of transmission blocking interventions

Gene Disruption of Plasmodium falciparum p52 Results in Attenuation of Malaria Liver Stage Development in Cultured Primary Human Hepatocytes

Difficulties with inducing sterile and long lasting protective immunity against malaria with subunit vaccines has renewed interest in vaccinations with attenuated Plasmodium parasites. Immunizations with sporozoites that are attenuated by radiation (RAS) can induce strong protective immunity both in humans and rodent models of malaria. Recently, in rodent parasites it has been shown that through the deletion of a single gene, sporozoites can also become attenuated in liver stage development and, importantly, immunization with these sporozoites results in immune responses identical to RAS. The promise of vaccination using these genetically attenuated sporozoites (GAS) depends on translating the results in rodent malaria models to human malaria. In this study, we perform the first essential step in this transition by disrupting, p52, in P. falciparum an ortholog of the rodent parasite gene, p36p, which we had previously shown can confer long lasting protective immunity in mice. These P. falciparum P52 deficient sporozoites demonstrate gliding motility, cell traversal and an invasion rate into primary human hepatocytes in vitro that is comparable to wild type sporozoites. However, inside the host hepatocyte development is arrested very soon after invasion. This study reveals, for the first time, that disrupting the equivalent gene in both P. falciparum and rodent malaria Plasmodium species generates parasites that become similarly arrested during liver stage development and these results pave the way for further development of GAS for human use

Three Members of the 6-cys Protein Family of Plasmodium Play a Role in Gamete Fertility

The process of fertilization is critically dependent on the mutual recognition of gametes and in Plasmodium, the male gamete surface protein P48/45 is vital to this process. This protein belongs to a family of 10 structurally related proteins, the so called 6-cys family. To identify the role of additional members of this family in Plasmodium fertilisation, we performed genetic and functional analysis on the five members of the 6-cys family that are transcribed during the gametocyte stage of P. berghei. This analysis revealed that in addition to P48/45, two members (P230 and P47) also play an essential role in the process of parasite fertilization. Mating studies between parasites lacking P230, P48/45 or P47 demonstrate that P230, like P48/45, is a male fertility factor, consistent with the previous demonstration of a protein complex containing both P48/45 and P230. In contrast, disruption of P47 results in a strong reduction of female fertility, while males remain unaffected. Further analysis revealed that gametes of mutants lacking expression of p48/45 or p230 or p47 are unable to either recognise or attach to each other. Disruption of the paralog of p230, p230p, also specifically expressed in gametocytes, had no observable effect on fertilization. These results indicate that the P. berghei 6-cys family contains a number of proteins that are either male or female specific ligands that play an important role in gamete recognition and/or attachment. The implications of low levels of fertilisation that exist even in the absence of these proteins, indicating alternative pathways of fertilisation, as well as positive selection acting on these proteins, are discussed in the context of targeting these proteins as transmission blocking vaccine candidates

Protein Export Marks the Early Phase of Gametocytogenesis of the Human Malaria Parasite Plasmodium falciparum*

Despite over a century of study of malaria parasites, parts of the Plasmodium falciparum life cycle remain virtually unknown. One of these is the early gametocyte stage, a round shaped cell morphologically similar to an asexual trophozoite in which major cellular transformations ensure subsequent development of the elongated gametocyte. We developed a protocol to obtain for the first time highly purified preparations of early gametocytes using a transgenic line expressing a green fluorescent protein from the onset of gametocytogenesis. We determined the cellular proteome (1427 proteins) of this parasite stage by high accuracy tandem mass spectrometry and newly determined the proteomes of asexual trophozoites and mature gametocytes, identifying altogether 1090 previously undetected parasite proteins. Quantitative label-free comparative proteomics analysis determined enriched protein clusters for the three parasite developmental stages. Gene set enrichment analysis on the 251 proteins enriched in the early gametocyte proteome revealed that proteins putatively exported and involved in erythrocyte remodeling are the most overrepresented protein set in these stages. One-tenth of the early gametocyte-enriched proteome is constituted of putatively exported proteins, here named PfGEXPs (P. falciparum gametocyte-exported proteins). N-terminal processing and N-acetylation at a conserved leucine residue within the Plasmodium export element pentamotif were detected by mass spectrometry for three such proteins in the early but not in the mature gametocyte sample, further supporting a specific role in protein export in early gametocytogenesis. Previous reports and results of our experiments confirm that the three proteins are indeed exported in the erythrocyte cytoplasm. This work indicates that protein export profoundly marks early sexual differentiation in P. falciparum, probably contributing to host cell remodeling in this phase of the life cycle, and that gametocyte-enriched molecules are recruited to modulate this process in gametocytogenesis

Genetically attenuated, P36p-deficient malarial sporozoites induce protective immunity and apoptosis of infected liver cells

Immunization with Plasmodium sporozoites that have been attenuated by γ-irradiation or specific genetic modification can induce protective immunity against subsequent malaria infection. The mechanism of protection is only known for radiation-attenuated sporozoites, involving cell-mediated and humoral immune responses invoked by infected hepatocytes cells that contain long-lived, partially developed parasites. Here we analyzed sporozoites of Plasmodium berghei that are deficient in P36p (p36p(-)), a member of the P48/45 family of surface proteins. P36p plays no role in the ability of sporozoites to infect and traverse hepatocytes, but p36p(-) sporozoites abort during development within the hepatocyte. Immunization with p36p(-) sporozoites results in a protective immunity against subsequent challenge with infectious wild-type sporozoites, another example of a specifically genetically attenuated sporozoite (GAS) conferring protective immunity. Comparison of biological characteristics of p36p(-) sporozoites with radiation-attenuated sporozoites demonstrates that liver cells infected with p36p(-) sporozoites disappear rapidly as a result of apoptosis of host cells that may potentiate the immune response. Such knowledge of the biological characteristics of GAS and their evoked immune responses are essential for further investigation of the utility of an optimized GAS-based malaria vaccine

Protection against a malaria challenge by sporozoite inoculation.

Contains fulltext : 81826.pdf (publisher's version ) (Open Access)BACKGROUND: An effective vaccine for malaria is urgently needed. Naturally acquired immunity to malaria develops slowly, and induction of protection in humans can be achieved artificially by the inoculation of radiation-attenuated sporozoites by means of more than 1000 infective mosquito bites. METHODS: We exposed 15 healthy volunteers--with 10 assigned to a vaccine group and 5 assigned to a control group--to bites of mosquitoes once a month for 3 months while they were receiving a prophylactic regimen of chloroquine. The vaccine group was exposed to mosquitoes that were infected with Plasmodium falciparum, and the control group was exposed to mosquitoes that were not infected with the malaria parasite. One month after the discontinuation of chloroquine, protection was assessed by homologous challenge with five mosquitoes infected with P. falciparum. We assessed humoral and cellular responses before vaccination and before the challenge to investigate correlates of protection. RESULTS: All 10 subjects in the vaccine group were protected against a malaria challenge with the infected mosquitoes. In contrast, patent parasitemia (i.e., parasites found in the blood on microscopical examination) developed in all five control subjects. Adverse events were mainly reported by vaccinees after the first immunization and by control subjects after the challenge; no serious adverse events occurred. In this model, we identified the induction of parasite-specific pluripotent effector memory T cells producing interferon-gamma, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and interleukin-2 as a promising immunologic marker of protection. CONCLUSIONS: Protection against a homologous malaria challenge can be induced by the inoculation of intact sporozoites. (ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT00442377.