Characteristics of feeding and breeding practices for intensification of smallholder dairy systems in the Kenya highlands

This study aimed at better understanding of the characteristics of feeding and breeding practices smallholder farmers adopt in intensifying their dairy production. Use of hired labour for fodder gathering, growing of fodder crops and purchase of feeds increased with increasing intensification, but Bos taurus breeds did not respond to increasing feeding intensification while Bos indicus cattle responded, calving at earlier age and yielding more milk. Overall, first calving occurred at 32 months, but days open prolonged to 250 days with milk yield of 4 litres per day of calving interval. A principal component analysis extracted six feeding and breeding components, explaining 71.79% of the total variations in feeding and breeding practices for dairy intensification. The six components were labelled: non- intensified feeding and breeding; breeding decisions based-intensification; high external resource based-intensification; moderate resource based-intensification; resource poor based-intensification; and moderate external resource based-intensification. These characteristics points to some `evolutionary process¿ of intensification involving feeding and breeding decisions, depending on the risk-bearing capacity of the household. Intensification enhancing interventions for smallholders need be considered in the context of the household economy. Interventions on feeding and breeding have to be packaged together holistically if intensification is to enhance productivity. A selective intervention on only one of these is associated with low productivity levels, only contributing to sustaining family subsistence livelihood

Disposal and replacement practices in Kenya’s smallholder dairy herds

The objectives of this study were to explore the possibilities for improving the breeding practices and developing policies in support of smallholder dairy producers in the central highlands of Kenya through analysing current disposal and replacement practices. Data were obtained from a cross-sectional characterization study. This began with a pilot survey in one district where 365 households were randomly sampled and then extended to another eight districts where 1390 households were randomly sampled. The pooled data from the nine districts comprised 987 dairy households with information on dairy cattle disposal and replacement practices during the previous year and the primary reasons for animal deaths and sales. Complementary information on the origins of cows was collected through targeted surveys of 50 sample households representative of the major dairy systems. Based on farmer recall of events during the year preceding the surveys, almost a third of cow and heifer exits were driven by the households’ needs for cash, and another third resulted from losses caused by diseases. Poor performance was less important, accounting for about 10% of cow exits and about 5% for heifers. More cows (>25% y-1) left the herd in zero- and semi-zero grazing systems than from free-grazing herds (19% y-1) and fewer heifers were available as replacements. As a result, the herds in the more intensive grazing systems would have to purchase replacements to maintain their herd size. By contrast, there were surplus heifer replacements in the free grazing systems. The majority of the breeding cows were born within the herd (68%) and few were purchased: 25% from smallholdings and 7% from large-scale farms. Of the purchased cows, 90% originated from smallholdings and 10% from large-scale farms while 96% of heifers were purchased from smallholdings and only 4% from large-scale farms. Purchases from smallholder farms were from within the locality. The implications of these results for smallholder dairy production in Kenya are discussed

Breed preferences and breeding practices in smallholder dairy systems of the central highlands of Kenya

This paper describes, for smallholder dairying in the central highlands of Kenya, the sources of foundation stock, farmers’ breed preferences and breeding practices for the major dairy breeds. Data were obtained from a cross-sectional characterization study of smallholder dairy systems in the central highlands of Kenya. The study began with a pilot survey in Kiambu district during June-July 1996 where a random sample of 365 households was interviewed. For this study, respondents were asked to state the sources of their dairy foundation stock and the reasons for selecting their current breeds. Subsequently the survey was extended during March-April 1998 to another eight districts in the central Kenya when 1390 households were randomly sampled. Complementary information on herd breeding history was collected through targeted surveys of 50 sample households representative of the major dairy systems in the region. Respondents were asked about the breed of sire mated to the first dairy cow owned and the sire breeds mated to the heifer progeny. The respondents were asked to rate their preference for a breed on a scale of 1 (1=least preferred) to 4 (4=most preferred) for each of ten characteristics: milk yield, fat yield, body weight, growth rate, fertility, disease resistance, feeding behaviour, market demand, slaughter/butcher value, and longevity. Majority of the farmers (68%) indicated specifically selecting the breed of sire for mating but only 37% used AI service and 63% used bull service. High milk yield was the most important criteria for selecting a dairy breed. As result, Friesian and Ayrshire were the most preferred breeds. Ayrshire was favoured over Friesian for disease resistance and feeding behaviour but not for market value and body weight. Common breeding practice was pure breeding for Friesian, and upgrading of Guernsey to Friesian and to a lesser extent Ayrshire. Breeding practises reflected producers’ efforts to maximise the proportion of Friesian genes in their herds

Application of the climate analogue concept in assessing the probable physiological and haematological responses of Friesian cattle to changing and variable climate in the Kenyan Highlands

Friesian cattle are considered the most sensitive to climate change-induced thermal stress and remain the major dairy breed in Kenya. This study applied the climate analogue concept to predict probable physiological and haematological responses of Friesian cattle in the 2050s to understand their adaptability to a changing and variable climate. Njoro in the Kenya Rift Valley Highlands was used as the reference site and its 2050s climate analogue site was identified in Shawa, based on criteria of a similarity index of 0.8–0.9. Results suggest that Njoro in the 2050s will likely experience increasing temperatures, but changes in rainfall are uncertain. The increasing temperatures will probably be accompanied by mild thermal stress for Friesian cattle during the dry seasons or drought. The thermal humidity index differed between times of day, but not between the analogue sites. Except for rectal temperatures, the physiological and haematological responses differed between the analogue sites, but were within the normal ranges. It is concluded that Friesian cattle in Njoro in the 2050s will probably experience mild thermal stress in the afternoons during the dry seasons, expressed by slight increases in physiological and haematological responses, but will probably remain within the normal margins.Keywords: Dairy cattle, haematimetric, Njoro, Rongai, thermal humidity inde

Herd dynamics of smallholder dairy in the Kenya highlands

Smallholder dairy farmers in the Kenya highlands generally intensify their farming systems by integrating dairy with crop production and shifting from free-grazing to semi-zero- or zero-grazing. They consequently change the breed composition, size and structure of their herds with resultant change in herd demographic rates. The intensification of smallholder dairying has underpinned changes in the farming systems to sustain more intensive land use and support more people per unit area of land in smallholder households. However, the concern is whether smallholders will continue to benefit from dairying through continued intensification when facing the pressures of continuously shrinking landholdings, worsening soil fertility and reduced access to formerly public delivered livestock input and output services, while imported nutrients remain relatively low and non-agricultural job opportunities remain lacking. The objective of this study was therefore to quantify the consequences of the intensification of farming systems in the Kenya highlands on the dynamics of smallholder dairy herds in order to better understand the constraints to, and opportunities for, the continued intensification of smallholder dairying. Data collection was through a random stratified cross-sectional survey of smallholder households. Data from the cross-sectional survey sample were complemented with additional information from longitudinal and targeted semi-structured interviews, which involved a randomly selected sub-sample of the previous cross-sectional survey. The drivers of intensification of smallholder dairying were identified and the relative changes were quantified at the level of the farms and farming systems. Intensification requires increased use of external resources including sources of replacement animals, feed resources, animal health and breeding services and credit to sustain the herd population and production. Prospects for maintaining and expanding smallholder dairying in the Kenya highlands depend upon the proportion of free-grazing farms maintained within the farming systems, because these supply semi-zero- and zero-grazing farms with dairy replacements. The rationale underlying smallholders' breeding decisions is based on multiple objectives of more milk, adaptability to local feed conditions and diseases and the provision of non-marketed production such as manure, insurance and financing roles of cattle. Feeding interventions to support continued intensification of smallholder dairying must be within the context of the household's economy, which is characterised by limited cash flow and low risk bearing capacity. Smallholders need affordable working capital to sustain intensification with use of external resources. Solutions to constraints of intensification must concurrently involve both technical and institutional innovations that may encourage greater complementarities and stratification in the dairy sub-sector.</p