Profile of high-performing college soccer teams: An exploratory multi-level analysis

Purpose: To determine the profile of high-performing college soccer teams through the use of exploratory hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) based on a socio-cognitive approach. Design and Measures: A correlational design was employed in this study. The sample consisted of 340 college soccer players of both genders (178 female and 162 male), representing 17 different teams (8 female and 9 male) ranked in the top-32 of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA). Numerous demographic and soccer-related variables represented level-1 in the HLM model. Group Environment Questionnaire and Team Assessment Diagnostic Measure were entered as level-2 variables, representing cohesion and team mental models, respectively. Perceived performance potential (PPP) served as the dependent variable. Objective performance scores were correlated with PPP, attesting a moderate to high-level of criterion related validity (r = .78). Results: The final model suggested that: (1) International athletes perceive their performance lower than others, (2) different field positions share different covariance coefficients with PPP, and (3) perception of social cohesion from a group, rather than individual, standpoint is positively associated with perceptions of team performance. Conclusions: High performing teams have clearly defined task-related and team-related goals. Accordingly, social rather than task related factors may represent a competitive edge, further energizing the interactions and performance of top-ranked teams. International athletes perceive team performance lower than locals, perhaps due to differences in preferred game-style and acculturation experiences. Players from different field positions (i.e., goalkeepers, defensive, and offensive players) relate differently to team performance in college soccer

What you know makes a difference: Physical activity maintenance and adherence of collegiate students

For decades, exercise psychology researchers dismissed health/exercise knowledge as a determinant of physical activity (PA). We sought to overturn this misconception, showing that psychological theory may serve as a basis for informing physical education curriculum. Based on social cognitive and self-determined motivation theories, we examined health/exercise knowledge as a determinant of collegiate students’ PA maintenance (i.e., ≥ 6 months of regular PA involvement); adherence to United States Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) 2008 PA guidelines; and PA types (i.e., aerobic, weight training). Collegiate students (n = 231) provided data via online survey. ANOVA analyses revealed that knowledge scores differentiated: a) participants in the maintenance stage from non-active participants (medium effect size); b) guideline adherents from non-adherents (medium-large effect size); and c) engagement in both PA types compared to only aerobic (large effect size). Males reported significantly higher perceived knowledge than females (medium-large effect size) though actual scores were not significantly different. This study provided evidence that knowledge is relevant to collegiate students’ PA. Future research may aid physical educators in determining knowledge types, based on psychological theory, that increase PA maintenance/adherence

A Qualitative Examination of Sport Retirement in Former NCAA Division I Athletes

Statistics indicate that the overwhelming majority of NCAA Division I college athletes will not continue in their sport professionally (NCAA, 2019). Therefore, there is a need to develop a deeper understanding of the variables that influence college athletes’ psychological health and well-being as they transition to retirement. The present study gathered detailed information about 15 former NCAA Division I college athletes’ retirement experiences four to five months post retirement. The findings suggested that the former college athletes had varied retirement experiences ranging from negative to positive. All college athletes who reported having a successful retirement transition described having at least one identified support group, stated they accomplished their athletic goals, indicated they had started pursuing other interests, and identified some positive aspects about their lives since retirement. Alternatively, the college athletes who reported having an unsuccessful retirement transition revealed they did not accomplish most of their athletic goals and struggled to identify any positive aspects about their lives since retirement. The findings of this study highlight the diversity in college athletes’ retirement experiences that can occur. Although there is still much more to ascertain about athlete retirement, this exploration into college athletes’ retirement experiences offers practical implications for athletes, coaches, practitioners, and those who want to provide support for a retiring athlete

Examination of reported cognitive appraisal, mental effort, cortisol response and shooting performance

Identifying and understanding stressors has become an important area within sport psychology (Thatcher & Day, 2008). Furthermore, it has been suggested that stressors encountered in a sporting situation can have an impact upon performance (Wagstaff, Flectcher & Hanton, 2012); in particular, cognitive appraisals and the resources available to cope with the demands of the task. The Theory of Challenge and Threat in Athletes model (TCTSA; Jones et al, 2009) indicate that neuroendocrine responses such as noradrenaline, adrenaline and cortisol release are associated with Challenge and Threat appraisal within Athletes. In addition it has also been suggested that mental effort will decrease with a Challenge state (Jones et al, 2009), however this has been seldom examined within the literature. The aim of this study was to explore whether there was any association between Challenge and Threat appraisal, mental effort self-report, cortisol response and shooting performance. Thirty nine participants (mean age=25.16, SD=2.01) included within the study gave self-report of Challenge and Threat (Cognitive Appraisal Ratio (CAR); Tomaka et al, 1993) and mental effort (Rating Scale Mental Effort (RSME; Zijstra, 1993). In addition, cortisol responses were measured pre and post a shooting performance task within a laboratory setting. Data analysis suggested there was a significant correlation observed between report on the CAR and cortisol response(r=.38, p0.05). This data suggested that a decrease in mental effort is potentially associated with Threat based upon cortisol response and self-report of Threat is positively associated with cortisol response. However, performance data is not linked to Challenge, Threat, cortisol response or mental effort in this instance. Further studies should examine adrenaline and cortisol response to self-report measures of stress appraisal and sporting performance

Pace Versus Prediction: Is the Age of the Runner Associated With Marathon Success?

INTRODUCTION: During closed-loop exercise, such as marathon running, the athlete adopts a pacing strategy to optimise performance. Exercise intensity (speed) is modulated in response to afferent signals from biological and psychological systems, which relay the responses of the exercise to the brain where efferent, homeostatic-orientated responses are issued. Thus a conscious perception of effort is continuously compared to a sub-conscious template which is derived from previous exposure to the sensations of pain and fatigue and expected exercise duration. The purpose of this study was to explore the association between pacing strategy/race outcome and biological age of the athlete. METHODS: Following local institutional ethical approval n = 777 runners who were competing in the 2015 London Marathon volunteered and agreed to participate. Age, gender and experience of the participants were ascertained using an online survey and opportunistic questionnaire surveying at the pre-marathon registration event. Age was stratified according to the following classifications: 18-39 yrs, 40-49 yrs, 50-59 yrs and >60 yrs. Additionally, participants were asked to predict their marathon finish time (PT) serving as a proxy for end-point and compared to actual finish time (FT). All participating runners 5km splits and FT were downloaded from the race website, converted to speed and then normalised (%) to the final split time/speed (m∙s-1). RESULTS: Significant differences were observed for all age groups (p 60 yrs (p = 0.153). Non-significant differences observed between age groups across all 5km splits (p > 0.05), but within group differences observed between 10-15km for all age groups (p 60yrs at 30-35km (ES = 0.53). CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that the biological age of the athlete is associated with the implementation of a successful pacing strategy and may be a function of the accrued training volume and/or emotional-event development. Athletes are encouraged to pace themselves with older (>60yrs) athletes with similar PT’

Je li dobar napad najbolja obrana? usporedba brazilskih i talijanskih stilova nogometne igre

The main purpose was to test the mythical belief that Brazilian soccer teams possess an offensive style of play while Italian teams rely on a defensive game plan. A dominant rationalization for these perceived differences is rooted in the cultural and social differences between the two nations. Data (goals scored, goals conceded, and points per game) from international competitions (World Cup), and from the local premier leagues (Brazilian and Italian) were descriptively and inferentially analyzed. Descriptive and inferential analyses revealed that: (1) Brazilian teams scored more goals per game than Italian teams at both the national and league level; (2) the relationship between goals scored and performance (points per game) was significant and of strong magnitude for Italian teams only (r=.84); and (3) strong defense is essential for successful performance in the World Cup for both the Brazilian and Italian national teams. Altogether, there was evidence of differences in Brazilian and Italian playing styles in regard to offensive (goals scored) and defensive (goals conceded) outcomes. Specific avenues for future directions are offered.Glavni je cilj bio ispitati mistično vjerovanje da brazilske nogometne momčadi njeguju napadački stil igre, dok se talijanske momčadi više oslanjaju na obrambeni stil igre. Objašnjenje zamijećenih razlika je ukorijenjeno najviše u kulturnim i socijalnim razlikama između ta dva naroda. Podaci (postignuti golovi, primljeni golovi i bodovi po utakmici) prikupljeni s utakmica međunarodnih natjecanja (svjetska prvenstva) i nacionalnih prvih liga (brazilska i talijanska) analizirani su opisno i statistički. Deskriptivna i statistička analiza ukazale su na sljedeće: (1) brazilske momčadi postižu u prosjeku više golova od talijanskih (na reprezentativnim natjecanjima, ali i u okviru ligaških natjecanja); (2) odnos između postignutih golova i uspješnosti (bodova) bio je značajan i imao visoku korelaciju samo za talijanske momčadi (r=0,84) i (3) snažna obrana pokazala se ključnom za uspjeh na svjetskim prvenstvima za obje momčadi. Zaključno, postoje dokazi o razlikama između brazilskih i talijanskih stilova igre u odnosu na napadačke (broj postignutih golova) i obrambene (broj primljenih golova) ishode. U radu se raspravlja o ograničenjima istraživanja, kao i o smjerovima mogućih istraživanja u budućnosti

Pace Versus Prediction: Is the Experience of the Runner Associated With Marathon Success?

PURPOSE: Pacing strategies during exercise are attributed to optimising the balance between the artefacts of fatigue and regulation of substrate metabolism. Pace judgement is set within a continuum of information from the ability to anticipate metabolic demands and select an appropriate strategy through to the accumulation of prior experience for completion of such a task that has a known end-point. Therefore the purpose of this study was to evaluate the importance of athlete experience to successfully regulate pace and attain a predicted end time during a marathon. METHOD: Following local institutional ethical approval n= 777 runners competing in the 2015 London Marathon agreed to participate. Using an on-line survey and opportunistic questionnaire at a pre-marathon event participants were asked to predict their race time. Athlete experience (EXP) was established based on the number of previously completed marathons using a Likert scale from 0 to greater than 10 with increments of 1 race. Athlete age was also recorded. All race data was downloaded from the race website generating 5Km split times, then converted to speed and normalised (%) to the final split time/speed (m.s-1). Prediction time (PT) was used a proxy for end-point and compared to finish time (FT). RESULTS: FT for whole group (WG) was 15479 ±3311s compared to the group PT 15003 ±2972s a significant difference of 476s (P= 0.0001). An R2of 0.863 observed for WG compared to 0.799 (EXP-0) and 0.852 (EXP-5) when comparing FT to PT. Significant differences observed between PT and FT for all EXP groups apart from EXP-5 (P= 0.0001). EXP-0 showed significant difference across all split times apart from 35-40 km (P=0.0001) with a decrease in normalised speed from 5km (109.0 ±7.6) –40km (89.9 ±7.4%). The EXP-5 group showed significant changes in pace between 25-30 km (P= 0.001) (ES= 0.35) and 30-35 km (P= 0.0001) (ES= 0.44), decrease in pace from 5km (105.0 ±5.7%) to 40km (93.7 ±5.6%). CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that successful marathon pacing is dependent on the experience of the athlete reflecting the development of the pacing template. Additionally experience is associated with better attainment of prediction time suggesting that less experienced runners should run with more experienced athletes with similar end-point targets

Pacing accuracy during an incremental step test in adolescent swimmers

To assess pacing accuracy in a group of adolescent swimmers during an incremental step test. Fifteen well-trained swimmers (age 15±1.5 years; height 170.2±8.8 cm; mass 60.2±6.6 kg), completed two 7×200 m tests, separated by ~72 hours. They swam to a predetermined incrementally increasing pace per step and were instructed to swim at even pace. Upon completion of each step, rating of perceived exertion, heart rate and blood lactate were recorded. Significant differences observed for both trials between actual and predicted swim time (P<0.05). Significant differences also observed between the first and second 100 m of each step in trial 1 for step 1 (P=0.001, effect size [ES] =0.54), step 2 (P=0.0001, ES =0.57), step 4 (P=0.0001, ES =0.53), step 5 (P=0.005, ES =0.65), step 6 (P=0.0001, ES =0.50), and step 7 (P=0.0001, ES =0.70). Similar responses witnessed for trial 2 (P<0.05). Findings suggest that the finite anaerobic capacity was engaged sooner than would normally be anticipated, as a function of an inability to regulate pace. This is proposed to be a consequence of the volume of exposure to the biological and psychological sensations and cognitive developmental status. Given the apparent error in pacing judgment exhibited in this population group, caution should be applied when adopting such tests to monitor training responses with adolescent athletes, and alternate means of modulating pace be investigated

Anticipation and imagery skill level differences of judo coaches

The ability to anticipate what will happen next has been studied extensively with athletes (Mann et al., 2007). Studies have generally found that higher level athletes are able to anticipate earlier and more accurately than lower level athletes, which provides them with an advantage in the decision making process and subsequently in choosing the best decision. Furthermore, the use of imagery among athletes has been studied extensively (e.g., Bhasavanija et al., 2011). Findings pertaining to differences among skill level indicate that higher level athletes have better imagery ability skills than lower level athletes (Williams & Cumming, 2011). Limited research has been conducted on anticipation ability and imagery use among coaches. This is surprising since coaches have reported imagery use across sports such as basketball and gymnastics (Short et al., 2005). Furthermore, in many sports coaches need to provide instructions to players by understanding what happened and predicting what will happen next, i.e., anticipation (Ford et al., 2009; Grundel et al., 2013). Thus, the purpose of the current study was to examine imagery ability (e.g., vividness, duration, perspective) and anticipation abilities among low, moderate and high skilled judo coaches. Sixty-five judo coaches from a European country who have been coaching from 1-39 years (M = 11.74, SD = 10.27) and have competed for 1-45 years (M = 13.57, SD = 7.73) participated in the study. Coaches reported imagery use and ability during coaching on a 7-item imagery questionnaire (Razon et al., 2010). In addition, coaches reported their subjective coaching and anticipation ability. Actual anticipation ability was measured using the occlusion paradigm in which coaches watched clips of matches in judo stopped just before an attacking action by a judoka. Results indicated that high level coaches rated their ability to anticipate and provide instructions higher than low-level coaches. Furthermore, higher level coaches reported more control of the image when using imagery and used an internal perspective when viewing the videos of the judo matches compared to medium level coaches. Findings showed that similar to athletes, higher level coaches have higher imagery and anticipation abilities compared to lower level coaches and have higher levels of confidence in their coaching ability in general. Future studies should examine the relationship between objective coaching abilities and imagery use

A Scientist-Practitioner Approach to an On-Field Assessment of Mental Skills in Collegiate Soccer Student-Athletes

Sport psychology practitioners frequently utilize questionnaires to evaluate sport psychology services, yet questionnaires may not be valued as highly by the coaches and/or athletes themselves. Therefore, an alternative, more reliable and ecologically valid method of assessing mental skills is needed for sport psychology practitioners. As such, the purpose of this paper is to illustrate how an authentic field-based mental skills program assessment was used in the off-season for collegiate soccer teams. Following discussions between the sport psychology practitioners and coaching staff, pre- and post- test activities were developed and implemented on an outdoor soccer field, which was determined to be a more authentic “real-world” environment. Activities evaluated situational and tactical awareness, on-field communication, shooting self-efficacy, and performance under pressure and fatigue. The field assessment experience provided a good method for the sport psychology practitioners to observe improvements in mental skills, and the student-athletes and coaches reported that the activities and debrief demonstrated the involvement of mental skills in every aspect of their soccer performance