Efficiency of wastewater treatment plants in removal of intestinal parasites: A review approach

of the spread and entry of parasitic pathogens into the environment and water resources. Numerous studies have been conducted on the presence of parasitic agents in the entry and effluent of WWTPs in different countries. This study was conducted to review the parasite prevalence in different WWTPs and assess their removal efficiency. Methods: ScienceDirect, Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed databases and other sites with the ability to receive a full-text related articles, were reviewed. Various keywords such as parasites, wastewater, effluent, treatment efficiency, protozoan cysts, parasitic eggs, and similar keywords were used to search articles published from 2005 to 2019. After screening the titles and abstracts of articles, 26 articles were reviewed in this study. Results: Giardia spp, Cryptosporidium spp, Entamoeba spp, Blastocystis spp, Toxocara spp, Trichostrongylus spp, A. lumbricoides, and Hymenolepis are the most prevalent parasites. Studies show that parasitic egg hatching rates are up to 5%, in aerated lagoons, up to 99.9%, in activated sludge, and up to 5%, in ponds due to high retention time and downstream artificial reefs. Conclusion: Studies show that due to the current state of treatment plants and adverse operating and maintenance conditions, it is not possible to completely remove parasitic pathogens from these systems, therefore, it should be considered by regulatory authorities and the systems need to be improved for better performance of treatment plants and optimizing them, and training of users should also be improved. This review indicated that the types of natural constructed wetland in Kermanshah (Iran) and activated sludge of wastewater treatment processes in Iran and Brazil are most effective in removal of intestinal parasites. Keywords: Waste water, Treatment, Parasites, Efficienc

INTESTINAL HELMINTHS FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF TRADITIONAL PERSIAN MEDICINE VERSUS MODERN MEDICINE

Background: Traditional Persian Medicine (TPM) has a history of almost 10,000 years with practice and experience aspects. The existing information and experiences of physicians such as Avicenna clearly show the vast amount of knowledge in the classification and treatment of pathogenic worms. The aim of this paper was the description of the various types of helminths along with their treatment in medieval Persia and comparing them with new medical findings. Materials and Methods: We searched main Traditional Persian Medical and pharmacological texts about etiology, manifestation, diagnosis and treatment of worms in the human digestive system and the out come was compared with the data extracted from modern medical sources. A list of medicinal plants was also extracted from traditional pharmacological books and the anthelmintic properties of these plants were checked in Google Scholar, Scopus, PubMed and Ulrich's databases. Results: The results show the existence of theories on pathogenicity, physiopathology, symptoms and the classification of worms in TPM. TPM philosophers have divided worms into four groups and there is not great difference between old Persian and Modern classification. The old Persian scholars have explained a treatment procedure using a list of 48 medicinal plants and the anthelmintic effect of 23 plants have been shown in modern medicine studies. Conclusion: This study shows a more in-depth and thorough classification of pathogenic worms, their pathogenicity, symptoms and treatments in Traditional Persian Medical compared to Greek Medicine so that old Persian classification may be the base of modern taxonomy. More clinical trials are suggested for the efficacy and safety of these plants

Utility of blood as the clinical specimen for the diagnosis of ocular toxoplasmosis using uracil DNA glycosylase-supplemented loop-mediated isothermal amplification and real-time polymerase chain reaction assays based on REP-529 sequence and B1 gene

Background: Ocular infection with Toxoplasma gondii is a major preventable cause of blindness, especially in young people. The aim of the present study was to assess detection rate of T. gondii DNA in blood samples of clinically diagnosed of ocular toxoplasmosis using uracil DNA glycosylase-supplemented loop-mediated isothermal amplification (UDG-LAMP) and real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) based on REP-529 and B1. Methods: One hundred and seventeen patients with clinically diagnosed ocular toxoplasmosis (OT) were participated in the study as well as 200 control patients. Peripheral blood samples were assessed using UDG-LAMP and qPCR techniques targeting REP-529 and B1. Results: Detection limits of qPCR using REP-529 and B1 were estimated as 0.1 and 1 fg of T. gondii genomic DNA, respectively. The limits of detection for UDG-LAMP using REP-529 and B1 were 1 and 100 fg, respectively. In this study, 18 and 16 patients were positive in qPCR using REP-529 and B1, respectively. Based on the results of UDG-LAMP, 15 and 14 patients were positive using REP-529 and B1, respectively. Results of the study on patients with active ocular lesion showed that sensitivity of REP-529 and BI targets included 64 and 63%, respectively using qPCR. Sensitivity of 62 and 61%, were concluded from UDG-LAMP using REP-529 and B1 in the blood cases of active ocular lesion. qPCR was more sensitive than UDG-LAMP for the detection of Toxoplasma gondii DNA in peripheral blood samples of patients with clinically diagnosed toxoplasmic chorioretinitis. Furthermore, the REP-529 included a better detection rate for the diagnosis of ocular toxoplasmosis in blood samples, compared to that the B1 gene did. Moreover, the qPCR and UDG-LAMP specificity assessments have demonstrated no amplifications of DNAs extracted from other microorganisms based on REP-529 and B1. Conclusions: Data from the current study suggest that qPCR and UDG-LAMP based on the REP-529 are promising diagnostic methods for the diagnosis of ocular toxoplasmosis in blood samples of patients with active chorioretinal lesions

Differential detection of Entamoeba histolytica from Entamoeba dispar by parasitological and nested multiplex polymerase chain reaction methods

Introduction: Amebiasis is an intestinal illness caused by a one-celled parasite (amoeba) called Entamoeba (E) histolytica. E histolytica and E dispar are morphologicallyundistinguishable but have genetic and functional differences. E. histolytica is invasive andcause amoebiasis, but E dispar cause an asymptomatic colonization which does not need to bemedically treated. We have performed a nested multiplex Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)targeting small subunit rRNA (Ribosomal ribonucleic acid) gene for differential detection of Ehistolytica and E dispar directly from stool samples. Methods: All the fecal samples collected without preservation and were screened for amebiccells by parasitological methods. Fecal samples that containing amebic cells were stored at -20ºC until DNA extraction. DNA extraction was down by using a DNA extraction kit. Thegenus specific primers were designed using nucleotide sequences of 18S-rRNA gene ofEntamoeba. Results: Thirty one (4.28%) stool samples out of 724 samples were positive for E histolytica/E dispar. The nested multiplex PCR illustrated that the size of diagnostic fragments of PCR products was obviously different for two Entamoeba species, the specific product size for Ehistolytica and E dispar was 439 and 174 bp. The nested multiplex PCR was positive in 25 outof 31 stool specimens that 17 (54.8%) samples were positive for E dispar and 8 (25.8%)samples were positive for E histolytica. Conclusion: Nested multiplex PCR was useful for the specific detection of E histolytica and Edispar in stool samples. In current study we detected that E dispar was more prevalent in our study area

Sero-prevalence of Toxoplasma Gondii Infection among Women in First Trimester of Pregnancy of Women in Razavi- Khorasan Province

Introduction and Aims Toxoplasmosis is a usual infection caused by the intracellular protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Primary infections during pregnancy are usually asymptomatic for the pregnant woman but can cause severe neonatal problems. This study designed to determine seroprevalence of IgG and IgM and its related factors among first trimester pregnant women referring to health centers of Razavi Khorasan Province, Iran. Materials and Methods In this cross sectional study 786 serum samples were collected from pregnant women aged from 15 to 46 years in Khorasan Razavi province, during 2013-2014. The seroprevalence IgG and IgM antibodies were measured by using of commercial kit in both urban and rural areas and data were analyzed using the SPSS v.19. Results The seroprevalence of IgG antibodies to T. gondii was 31.17% while IgM seroprevalence was 5.47% and 1.65% were positive for both IgG and IgM antibodies. The seroprevalence of T. gondii is directly proportional to the age, but inversely proportional to education and there was not any significant difference between urban and rural areas. Conclusion Sero-prevalence of T.gondii-specific antibodies is nearly high among pregnant women in Razavi-Khorasan province with a significant ratio of women at risk of T. gondii infections. Screening of T. gondii infections during antenatal care should be considered in this area as the chief strategy to diminish congenital toxoplasmosis. * Corresponding Author: Tehran University of Medical Sciences, School of Public Health. Email: [email protected]

Anti-Giardial Activity of Chloroformic Extract of Tanacetum parthenium and Artemisia annua in vitro

Background: Giardiasis is a one of the most prevalent intestinal parasitic diseases in human, treatment of this disease through medicinal plants is very important since parasite resistance to chemical drugs exists. Thus, in this study, the in vitro anti-giardial activity of chloroformic extract of Tanacetum parthenium and Artemisia annua on cyst and trophozoite of Giardia lamblia were separately investigated.Materials and Methods: In this experimental study chloroformic extracts of Artemisia annua and Tanacetum parthenium on cyst and trophozoite of G. lamblia in vitro were prepared in 1, 10, 50 and 100 mg∕ml concentrations for 5, 10, 30, 60 and 180 min. Purified cysts were used for encystations and culture in TYI-S-33 medium. Then, 2 ml of each solution was placed in test tubes, to which 10,000 washed cysts and trophozoites were added. The contents of the tubes were gently mixed and incubated. The percentages of dead parasites were determined by counting 500 cysts. Non treated parasites were considered a control group in each experiment and the viability of the parasites checked with Eeosin staining and statistical analysis were done. Results: The results showed that chloroformic extracts of A. annua at 100 mg/ml concentration affected on Gardia cyst 86% and 100% trophozoite after 1 hour. T. parthenium at 50mg/ml concentration killed cysts (83%) and trophozite (100%) after 1 hour, respectively. T. parthenium chloroformic extract had a better effect on cyst and trophozoite of Giardia at 50 mg/ml after 1 hour exposure than A. annua extract. Conclusion: According to this study, A. annua and T. parthenium chlorofomic extracts could be considered as a more effective anti-giardial agent. Chloroformic extract of T. parthenium was also shown the anti-giardial activity compared with A. annua and control groups at all exposure times. Therefore, in the future research using these plants are recommended against Giardia in low concentration in the in vivo, also to find fractions of the pharmacological effects of these plants

Prevalence of Corynosoma caspicum infection in Gasterosteus aculeatus fish in Caspian Sea, Northern Iran

Aim: There is little information about the prevalence of Corynosoma caspicum in fish particularly Gasterosteus aculeatus in Iran and the world. The aim of the present study was to find out the prevalence of acanthocephalan infection in Babolsar district, southern coastal of Caspian Sea, Northern Iran. Materials and Methods: Between September 2012 and August 2014, a total of 360 G. aculeatus fishes were randomly collected by drift nets from coastal regions in Babolsar and then examined the intestine and body cavity for worm infections. Results: A total of 360 G. aculeatus fishes, 109 (30.3%) were found infected with at least one Corynosoma capsicum, and there was no significant association between genders and the prevalence infection of acanthocephalan. Moreover, there was a significant difference in infected rate between summer (79%, 86/109) and spring (21%, 23/109) (p<0.05). Conclusion: The high occurrence of Corynosoma infection in G. aculeatus indicates the enzootic constancy status of the infection in the southern coastal of Caspian Sea, Northern Iran

Potent antileishmanial activity of chitosan against Iranian strain of Leishmania major (MRHO/IR/75/ER): In vitro and in vivo assay

Background & objectives: Leishmaniasis is one of the major neglected zoonotic parasitic diseases whose treatment and control is very complex. Pentavalent antimonials remain the primary drugs against different forms of leishmaniasis, however, resistance to antimony and its toxic effects has necessitated the development of alternative medications such as use of medicinal plants and natural compounds. The aim of the current study was to assess the in vitro and in vivo activities of chitosan as a natural resource against Leishmania major. Methods: Low molecular weight chitosan, with 95% degree of deacetylation was melted in normal saline to a final concentration of 50, 100, 200 and 400 μg/ml. Then, the promastigotes of L. major (Iranian strain) were added to the wells of 96-well plate and 20 μl of each concentration was added to the RPMI 1640 medium. Live and dead promastigotes were counted after adding 0.1% eosin stain. The efficacy of the chitosan was also examined in BALB/c mice infected with Iranian strain of L. major. All in vitro experiments were performed in triplicate and the results of in vitro and in vivo tests were compared to the acetic acid and NaOH as negative control and glucantime as positive control. Results: The low molecular weight chitosan was completely effective at concentrations of 100, 200 and 400 μg/ml on promastigotes of L. major after 180 min of application. Moreover, in the in vivo study, the mean size of dermal lesions significantly decreased in the groups treated with the chitosan compared to the control group. Interpretation & conclusion: According to the results of the study, it can be concluded that chitosan is a potent active compound against L. major and could be evaluated as a new antileishmanial drug in the future

Comparison of Sensitivity of Sucrose Gradient, Wet Mount and Formalin - Ether in Detecting Protozoan Giardia lamblia in Stool Specimens of BALB/c Mice

Giardia lamblia is an intestinal protozoan parasite; hence, to diagnose the cyst, it is necessary to find a reliable, simpler and less expensive diagnostic method in the laboratory. Therefore, in order to choose a more sensitive, cheaper and applicable diagnostic method in the laboratory ; three methods, namely, sucrose gradient, wet mount and formalin-ether in fecal samples from BALB/c mice infected with the protozoan Giardia, were studied. In this diagnostic laboratory study, 200 stool samples from infected mice (BALB/c) with Giardia were studied. Stool specimens from three direct smear method, formalin-ether and sucrose were prepared. A total of 200 specimens for each method were prepared and examined by microscope. Furthermore, it enhanced the accuracy check at each stage; the feces of healthy mice were used as negative controls for comparison. Stool examination revealed G. lamblia cysts in mice infected BALB/c from 200 samples for each method. In the direct method, formalin - ether and sucrose gradient, 101 (55.00%), 166 (83.00%) and 180 (94.00%) cases were positive respectively. Therefore, the sucrose method has demonstrated the highest sensitivity (94.00%), compared to other methods. According to the results of this study, sucrose is a sensitive method for high-throughput and cost-effective diagnostic method, than previous methods. Therefore, sucrose method is suggested suitable and can be used in place of formalin-ether. Given their potency, the sucrose gradient may be recommended to undergo futher studies