Functional correlates of skull shape in Chiroptera: feeding and echolocation adaptations.

Morphological, functional and behavioural adaptations of bats are among the most diverse within mammals. A strong association between bat skull morphology and feeding behaviour has been suggested previously. However, morphological variation related to other drivers of adaptation, in particular echolocation, remains understudied. We assessed variation in skull morphology with respect to ecology (diet and emission type) and function (bite force, masticatory muscles and echolocation characteristics) using geometric morphometrics and comparative methods. Our study suggests that variation in skull shape of 10 bat families is the result of adaptations to broad dietary categories and sound emission types (oral or nasal). Skull shape correlates with echolocation parameters only in a subsample of insectivorous species, possibly because they (almost) entirely rely on this sensory system for locating and capturing prey. Insectivores emitting low frequencies are characterised by a ventrally tilted rostrum, a trait not associated with feeding parameters. This result questions the validity of a trade-off between feeding and echolocation function. Our study advances understanding of the relationship between skull morphology and specific features of echolocation and suggests that evolutionary constraints due to echolocation may differ between different groups within the Chiroptera

The biophysics of bird flight: Functional relationships integrate aerodynamics, morphology, kinematics, muscles, and sensors

Bird flight is a remarkable adaptation that has allowed the approximately 10 000 extant species to colonize all terrestrial habitats on earth including high elevations, polar regions, distant islands, arid deserts, and many others. Birds exhibit numerous physiological and biomechanical adaptations for flight. Although bird flight is often studied at the level of aerodynamics, morphology, wingbeat kinematics, muscle activity, or sensory guidance independently, in reality these systems are naturally integrated. There has been an abundance of new studies in these mechanistic aspects of avian biology but comparatively less recent work on the physiological ecology of avian flight. Here we review research at the interface of the systems used in flight control and discuss several common themes. Modulation of aerodynamic forces to respond to different challenges is driven by three primary mechanisms: wing velocity about the shoulder, shape within the wing, and angle of attack. For birds that flap, the distinction between velocity and shape modulation synthesizes diverse studies in morphology, wing motion, and motor control. Recently developed tools for studying bird flight are influencing multiple areas of investigation, and in particular the role of sensory systems in flight control. How sensory information is transformed into motor commands in the avian brain remains, however, a largely unexplored frontier

Aerodynamic performance of the feathered dinosaur Microraptor and the evolution of feathered flight

Understanding the aerodynamic performance of feathered, non-avialan dinosaurs is critical to reconstructing the evolution of bird flight. Here we show that the Early Cretaceous five-winged paravian Microraptor is most stable when gliding at high-lift coefficients (low lift/drag ratios). Wind tunnel experiments and flight simulations show that sustaining a high-lift coefficient at the expense of high drag would have been the most efficient strategy for Microraptor when gliding from, and between, low elevations. Analyses also demonstrate that anatomically plausible changes in wing configuration and leg position would have made little difference to aerodynamic performance. Significant to the evolution of flight, we show that Microraptor did not require a sophisticated, ‘modern’ wing morphology to undertake effective glides. This is congruent with the fossil record and also with the hypothesis that symmetric ‘flight’ feathers first evolved in dinosaurs for non-aerodynamic functions, later being adapted to form lifting surface