UV index measurement and model agreement: uncertainties and limitations

En les últimes dècades, l'increment dels nivells de radiació solar ultraviolada (UVR) que arriba a la Terra (principalment degut a la disminució d'ozó estratosfèric) juntament amb l'augment detectat en malalties relacionades amb l'exposició a la UVR, ha portat a un gran volum d'investigacions sobre la radiació solar en aquesta banda i els seus efectes en els humans. L'índex ultraviolat (UVI), que ha estat adoptat internacionalment, va ser definit amb el propòsit d'informar al públic general sobre els riscos d'exposar el cos nu a la UVR i per tal d'enviar missatges preventius. L'UVI es va definir inicialment com el valor màxim diari. No obstant, el seu ús actual s'ha ampliat i té sentit referir-se a un valor instantani o a una evolució diària del valor d'UVI mesurat, modelitzat o predit. El valor concret d'UVI està afectat per la geometria Sol-Terra, els núvols, l'ozó, els aerosols, l'altitud i l'albedo superficial.Les mesures d'UVI d'alta qualitat són essencials com a referència i per estudiar tendències a llarg termini; es necessiten també tècniques acurades de modelització per tal d'entendre els factors que afecten la UVR, per predir l'UVI i com a control de qualitat de les mesures. És d'esperar que les mesures més acurades d'UVI s'obtinguin amb espectroradiòmetres. No obstant, com que els costs d'aquests dispositius són elevats, és més habitual trobar dades d'UVI de radiòmetres eritemàtics (de fet, la majoria de les xarxes d'UVI estan equipades amb aquest tipus de sensors). Els millors resultats en modelització s'obtenen amb models de transferència radiativa de dispersió múltiple quan es coneix bé la informació d'entrada. No obstant, habitualment no es coneix informació d'entrada, com per exemple les propietats òptiques dels aerosols, la qual cosa pot portar a importants incerteses en la modelització. Sovint, s'utilitzen models més simples per aplicacions com ara la predicció d'UVI o l'elaboració de mapes d'UVI, ja que aquests són més ràpids i requereixen menys paràmetres d'entrada.Tenint en compte aquest marc de treball, l'objectiu general d'aquest estudi és analitzar l'acord al qual es pot arribar entre la mesura i la modelització d'UVI per condicions de cel sense núvols.D'aquesta manera, en aquest estudi es presenten comparacions model-mesura per diferents tècniques de modelització, diferents opcions d'entrada i per mesures d'UVI tant de radiòmetres eritemàtics com d'espectroradiòmeters. Com a conclusió general, es pot afirmar que la comparació model-mesura és molt útil per detectar limitacions i estimar incerteses tant en les modelitzacions com en les mesures. Pel que fa a la modelització, les principals limitacions que s'han trobat és la falta de coneixement de la informació d'aerosols considerada com a entrada dels models. També, s'han trobat importants diferències entre l'ozó mesurat des de satèl·lit i des de la superfície terrestre, la qual cosa pot portar a diferències importants en l'UVI modelitzat. PTUV, una nova i simple parametrització pel càlcul ràpid d'UVI per condicions de cel serens, ha estat desenvolupada en base a càlculs de transferència radiativa. La parametrització mostra una bona execució tant respecte el model base com en comparació amb diverses mesures d'UVI. PTUV ha demostrat la seva utilitat per aplicacions particulars com ara l'estudi de l'evolució anual de l'UVI per un cert lloc (Girona) i la composició de mapes d'alta resolució de valors d'UVI típics per un territori concret (Catalunya). En relació a les mesures, es constata que és molt important saber la resposta espectral dels radiòmetres eritemàtics per tal d'evitar grans incerteses a la mesura d'UVI. Aquest instruments, si estan ben caracteritzats, mostren una bona comparació amb els espectroradiòmetres d'alta qualitat en la mesura d'UVI. Les qüestions més importants respecte les mesures són la calibració i estabilitat a llarg termini. També, s'ha observat un efecte de temperatura en el PTFE, un material utilitzat en els difusors en alguns instruments, cosa que potencialment podria tenir implicacions importants en el camp experimental.Finalment, i pel que fa a les comparacions model-mesura, el millor acord s'ha trobat quan es consideren mesures d'UVI d'espectroradiòmetres d'alta qualitat i s'usen models de transferència radiativa que consideren les millors dades disponibles pel que fa als paràmetres òptics d'ozó i aerosols i els seus canvis en el temps. D'aquesta manera, l'acord pot ser tan alt dins un 0.1º% en UVI, i típicament entre menys d'un 3%. Aquest acord es veu altament deteriorat si s'ignora la informació d'aerosols i depèn de manera important del valor d'albedo de dispersió simple dels aerosols. Altres dades d'entrada del model, com ara l'albedo superficial i els perfils d'ozó i temperatura introdueixen una incertesa menor en els resultats de modelització.The increase in solar ultraviolet radiation (UVR) levels reaching the Earth surface during the last decades (mostly induced by the stratospheric ozone depletion), together with a detected increase in UVR-related diseases, has lead to a high volume of investigations about this band of the solar radiation and its effects on human beings.The ultraviolet Index (UVI), which is currently internationally adopted, was defined in order to disseminate information to the public about the risks of exposing the naked body to UVR and to send preventive messages. UVI was initially defined as the maximum daily value. However, the current use of this index has been widened and nowadays it makes sense to refer to an instantaneous value or to the evolution of the measured, modelled, or predicted UVI during the day. The actual value of UVI is affected by the Sun-Earth geometry, clouds, ozone, aerosols, altitude and ground albedo. High quality UVI measurements are essential as a reference and to study long-term trends; accurate modelling techniques are needed to understand the way factors affect UVR, to predict UVI, and as a quality control of the measurements. For the UVI measurement, best accuracy is expected with data from spectroradiometers. However, since the costs of these devices are expensive, data from erythemal radiometers are more commonly available (most UVI networks are equipped with this latter type of sensors). Best UVI modelling performance is found with multi-scattering radiative transfer models when the input information is well known. However, some relevant input information, such as the aerosol optical properties, is usually not available which can lead to large modelling uncertainties. More simple models are often used for applications such as UVI prediction or elaboration of UVI maps, as they are much faster and require less input parameters.Considering this framework, the general objective of this work is to analyse the agreement that can be reached between modelled and measured UVI for cloudless conditions.For this, model-measurement comparisons are presented for different modelling techniques, for several input options, and for UVI measured by both erythemal radiometers and spectroradiometers. As a general conclusion, it can be stated that the comparison of modelled vs. measured UVI is very useful to detect limitations and estimate uncertainties in both the modelling and measurements.As far as modelling is concerned, the main limitations found are the lack of knowledge in the aerosol information considered as input. Also, important differences are found between the ozone column from satellite and from ground based measurements, which lead to important differences in the modelled UVI.PTUV, a new simple parameterisation for fast UVI calculations for cloudless conditions, has been developed based on radiative transfer calculations. The parameterisation shows a good performance both with respect to the base model and to diverse UVI measurements. PTUV has demonstrated to be useful for particular applications such as to study the annual UVI variation at a particular site (Girona) and to build high resolution maps of typical UVI for a territory (Catalonia).Regarding the measurements, it is found that the use of the actual spectral response of the erythemal radiometers is very important to avoid large uncertainties in the measured UVI. If well characterised, the erythemal radiometers compare reasonably well with high quality spectroradiometers when measuring UVI. Major issues with respect to the measurements are long term calibration accuracy and stability. Also, a temperature effect in PTFE, a material used as diffuser in some instruments, has been observed, which could have potentially important implications in the experimental field. Finally, and concerning the model-measurement comparisons, the best agreement has been found when high quality spectroradiometric UVI measurements are considered and radiative transfer models are applied taking into account the best data available regarding aerosol and ozone optical parameters and their changes in time. In this case, the agreement can be as high as 0.1% in UVI, and typically less than 3%. This agreement deteriorates greatly if aerosols are ignored, and depends importantly on the aerosol single scattering albedo. Other data, such as ground albedo or the actual atmospheric temperature and ozone profiles, introduce lower uncertainty in the modelling results

Using a Parameterization of a Radiative Transfer Model to Build High-Resolution Maps of Typical Clear-Sky UV Index in Catalonia, Spain

To perform a climatic analysis of the annual UV index (UVI) variations in Catalonia, Spain (northeast of the Iberian Peninsula), a new simple parameterization scheme is presented based on a multilayer radiative transfer model. The parameterization performs fast UVI calculations for a wide range of cloudless and snow-free situations and can be applied anywhere. The following parameters are considered: solar zenith angle, total ozone column, altitude, aerosol optical depth, and single-scattering albedo. A sensitivity analysis is presented to justify this choice with special attention to aerosol information. Comparisons with the base model show good agreement, most of all for the most common cases, giving an absolute error within 0.2 in the UVI for a wide range of cases considered. Two tests are done to show the performance of the parameterization against UVI measurements. One uses data from a high-quality spectroradiometer from Lauder, New Zealand [45.04°S, 169.684°E, 370 m above mean sea level (MSL)], where there is a low presence of aerosols. The other uses data from a Robertson–Berger-type meter from Girona, Spain (41.97°N, 2.82°E, 100 m MSL), where there is more aerosol load and where it has been possible to study the effect of aerosol information on the model versus measurement comparison. The parameterization is applied to a climatic analysis of the annual UVI variation in Catalonia, showing the contributions of solar zenith angle, ozone, and aerosols. High-resolution seasonal maps of typical UV index values in Catalonia are presente

Towards closure between measured and modelled UV under clear skies at four diverse sites

The purpose of this work is determine the extent of closure between measurements and models of UV irradiances at diverse sites using state of the art instruments, models, and the best available data as inputs to the models. These include information about aerosol optical depth (unfortunately not extending down as far into the UVB region as desirable because such information is not generally available), ozone column amounts, as well as vertical profiles of temperature. We concentrate on clear-sky irradiances, and report the results in terms of UV Index (UVI

Climatology and changes in cloud cover in the area of the Black, Caspian, and Aral seas (1991-2010): a comparison of surface observations with satellite and reanalysis products

This article presents a climatology of total cloud cover (TCC) in the area of the three inland Eurasian seas (Black, Caspian, and Aral Sea). Analyses are performed on the basis of 20 years of data (19912010), collected from almost 200 ground stations. Average TCC is 49%, with broad spatial and seasonal variability: minimum TCC values are found in summer and to the southeast, whereas maximum values correspond to winter and to the northwest. For the whole area, linear trend analyses show that TCC did not vary during the study period. We only detected a statistically significant positive trend (+1.2% decade−1) in autumn. We obtained different results for the regions delimited by means of a principal component analysis: a clear decrease, both for the annual, spring, and summer series, was detected for the south of Black Sea, while increasing TCC was found for the annual, autumn, and winter series in the north Caucasus and the west and north of Black Sea. We also analysed the TCC data from global gridded products, including satellite projects [International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP), Pathfinder Atmospheres Extended (PATMOS-x), cLoud, Albedo & Radiation (CLARA)], reanalyses [ERA-interim, National Centers for Environmental Prediction/Department of Energy (NCEP/DOE), Modern-Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications (MERRA)], and surface observations [Climatic Research Unit (CRU)]. Although all these products capture the seasonal evolution over the study area, they differ substantially both among them and in relation to the ground observations: reanalyses produce much lower values of TCC, while ISCCP and CLARA provide a summer minimum that is too high. Trend analyses applied to these data generally showed a decrease in TCC; only CRU and NCEP/DOE tally with the ground data as regards the absence of overall trends. These results are discussed in relation to previous studies presenting trends of other variables such as sunshine duration, diurnal temperature range, or precipitation; we also discuss the connections with changes in synoptic patterns and environmental changes, in particular in the Aral Sea regionThis research was developed under the auspices of, and with funding from, the project ‘CLIMSEAS: Climate Change and Inland Seas: Phenomena, Feedbacks, and Uncertainties. The Physical Science Basis’, of the Seventh Framework Programme, European Union People-Marie Curie Actions, International Research Staff Exchange Scheme (FP7-PEOPLE-2009-IRSES N. 247512). Several authors are involved within the project NUCLIERSOL (CGL2010-18546), funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness. Aarón Enriquez-Alonso was given a grant from the FPI program (BES-2011-049095) of the same ministry. Arturo Sanchez-Lorenzo was supported by the ‘Secretaria per a Universitats i Recerca del Departament d'Economia i Coneixement, de la Generalitat de Catalunya i del programa Cofund de les Accions Marie Curie del 7è Programa marc d'R+D de la Unió Europea’ (2011 BP-B 00078) and the postdoctoral fellowship JCI-2012-12508. Partial support was provided to the Hydrometeorological Center of Russia by Russian Foundation for Basic Research (№13-05-00562). The ISCCP-D2 data were obtained from the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project web site (http://isccp.giss.nasa.gov), maintained by the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies, New York. Data from EUMETSAT's Satellite Application Facility on Climate Monitoring (CM SAF) were used. PATMOS-x data are available via ftp from the University of Wisconsin, Space Science and Engineering Center (SSEC), and the Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite Studies (CIMSS). ERA-Interim data are supported by the European Center for Medium-range Weather Forecast (ECMWF). NCEP Reanalysis data are provided by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR). Earth System Research Laboratory (ESRL), Physical Sciences Division (PSD) (http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/). MERRA files were obtained from the NASA Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center. CRU TS3.20 Time-Series (TS) of High Resolution Gridded Data were provided by the University of East Anglia Climatic Research Unit (CRU

Tècniques científiques integrades

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