What traits are carried on mobile genetic elements, and why?

Although similar to any other organism, prokaryotes can transfer genes vertically from mother cell to daughter cell, they can also exchange certain genes horizontally. Genes can move within and between genomes at fast rates because of mobile genetic elements (MGEs). Although mobile elements are fundamentally self-interested entities, and thus replicate for their own gain, they frequently carry genes beneficial for their hosts and/or the neighbours of their hosts. Many genes that are carried by mobile elements code for traits that are expressed outside of the cell. Such traits are involved in bacterial sociality, such as the production of public goods, which benefit a cell's neighbours, or the production of bacteriocins, which harm a cell's neighbours. In this study we review the patterns that are emerging in the types of genes carried by mobile elements, and discuss the evolutionary and ecological conditions under which mobile elements evolve to carry their peculiar mix of parasitic, beneficial and cooperative genes

A Method for Generation Phage Cocktail with Great Therapeutic Potential

Background: Bacteriophage could be an alternative to conventional antibiotic therapy against multidrug-resistant bacteria. However, the emergence of resistant variants after phage treatment limited its therapeutic application. Methodology/Principal Findings: In this study, an approach, named ‘‘Step-by-Step’ ’ (SBS), has been established. This method takes advantage of the occurrence of phage-resistant bacteria variants and ensures that phages lytic for wild-type strain and its phage-resistant variants are selected. A phage cocktail lytic for Klebsiella pneumoniae was established by the SBS method. This phage cocktail consisted of three phages (GH-K1, GH-K2 and GH-K3) which have different but overlapping host strains. Several phage-resistant variants of Klebsiella pneumoniae were isolated after different phages treatments. The virulence of these variants was much weaker [minimal lethal doses (MLD).1.3610 9 cfu/mouse] than that of wild-type K7 countpart (MLD = 2.5610 3 cfu/mouse). Compared with any single phage, the phage cocktail significantly reduced the mutation frequency of Klebsiella pneumoniae and effectively rescued Klebsiella pneumoniae bacteremia in a murine K7 strain challenge model. The minimal protective dose (MPD) of the phage cocktail which was sufficient to protect bacteremic mice from lethal K7 infection was only 3.0610 4 pfu, significantly smaller (p,0.01) than that of single monophage. Moreover, a delayed administration of this phage cocktail was still effective in protection against K7 challenge. Conclusions/Significance: Our data showed that the phage cocktail was more effective in reducing bacterial mutatio

Varieties of living things: Life at the intersection of lineage and metabolism

publication-status: Publishedtypes: Articl

Targeted Curing of All Lysogenic Bacteriophage from Streptococcus pyogenes Using a Novel Counter-selection Technique

We thank the members of the Laboratory of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, especially Annette Nelkenbaum and Ben Winer for their technical assistance. We also thank Estee Colleen Cervantes and Sutapa Banerjee from Hunter College for their technical contribution to this project. We are grateful to Joseph Ferretti for S. pyogenes strain SF370.Streptococcus pyogenes is a human commensal and a bacterial pathogen responsible for a wide variety of human diseases differing in symptoms, severity, and tissue tropism. The completed genome sequences of >37 strains of S. pyogenes, representing diverse disease-causing serotypes, have been published. The greatest genetic variation among these strains is attributed to numerous integrated prophage and prophage-like elements, encoding several virulence factors. A comparison of isogenic strains, differing in prophage content, would reveal the effects of these elements on streptococcal pathogenesis. However, curing strains of prophage is often difficult and sometimes unattainable. We have applied a novel counter-selection approach to identify rare S. pyogenes mutants spontaneously cured of select prophage. To accomplish this, we first inserted a two-gene cassette containing a gene for kanamycin resistance (KanR) and the rpsL wild-type gene, responsible for dominant streptomycin sensitivity (SmS), into a targeted prophage on the chromosome of a streptomycin resistant (SmR) mutant of S. pyogenes strain SF370. We then applied antibiotic counter-selection for the re-establishment of the KanS/SmR phenotype to select for isolates cured of targeted prophage. This methodology allowed for the precise selection of spontaneous phage loss and restoration of the natural phage attB attachment sites for all four prophage-like elements in this S. pyogenes chromosome. Overall, 15 mutants were constructed that encompassed every permutation of phage knockout as well as a mutant strain, named CEM1ΔΦ, completely cured of all bacteriophage elements (a ~10% loss of the genome); the only reported S. pyogenes strain free of prophage-like elements. We compared CEM1ΔΦ to the WT strain by analyzing differences in secreted DNase activity, as well as lytic and lysogenic potential. These mutant strains should allow for the direct examination of bacteriophage relationships within S. pyogenes and further elucidate how the presence of prophage may affect overall streptococcal survival, pathogenicity, and evolution.Yeshttp://www.plosone.org/static/editorial#pee