Determinants of public spending at the subnational level: a comparison of polish and spanish local governments

JEL Classification: D72, H72This study provides a unique comparison between Polish and Spanish local governments with respect to the impact of various political factors on the size and composition of public expenditure. In particular, it aims at verifying the existence of political business cycles as well as partisan effects in the analyzed states at the subnational level. Additionally, the role of fiscal autonomy in shaping the spending decisions and its effect on the magnitude of opportunistic behavior of mayors are also investigated. For the purpose of an empirical research, panel data analysis is applied and a set of equations is estimated separately for each of the countries. Apart from examining total expenses, the level of expenditure on public goods perceived as potentially highly visible to the voters is also considered. The results confirm the hypothesis of an increased spending, both in the aggregate terms and in particular categories, during the pre-election periods. Also, in Poland and Spain higher degree of fiscal authority granted to lower tiers of public administration corresponds to a decrease in the size of public sector. Finally, an evidence of an intensified opportunistic behavior of politicians in the light of greater fiscal autonomy is found.Este estudo apresenta uma comparação única entre os governos locais de Espanha e Polónia no que diz respeito ao impacto dos vários fatores políticos na dimensão e composição da despesa pública. Em particular, o estudo centra-se em verificar a existência de ciclos políticos bem como de efeitos partidários nos países sobre análise, a um nível local. Adicionalmente, o papel da autonomia fiscal enquanto elemento influente nas decisões sobre gastos públicos e no grau de oportunismos dos decisores políticos são também investigados. Para o propósito da analise empírica, é utilizado dados de painel e o grupo de equações é estimado de forma separada para cada um dos países. Para além de analisar a despesa total, o nível de despesa em bens públicos percebido como potencialmente elevado pelos votantes é também considerado. Os resultados confirmam a hipótese de um nível crescente de despesa publica, tanto em termos agregados como em categorias particulares, durante os períodos pré-eleitorais. Também, em Espanha e na Polónia um grau elevado de autonomia fiscal garantida para os nível baixos da administração pública corresponde a um decréscimo do tamanho do sector público. Finalmente, são encontradas evidencias de intensificação do comportamento oportunista de políticos em ambientes de maior autonomia fiscal

Identification of potential marker genes for <i>Trichoderma harzianum</i> strains with high antagonistic potential against <i>Rhizoctonia solani</i> by a rapid subtraction hybridization approach

A rapid subtraction hybridization approach was used to isolate genes differentially expressed during mycelial contact between Trichoderma harzianum (Hypocrea lixii) and Rhizoctonia solani, and could serve as marker genes for selection of superior biocontrol strains. Putatively positive clones were evaluated by transcription analysis during mycelial contact with R. solani versus growth on glucose, and for their differential transcription between two strains with either strong or poor biocontrol capability before, at, and after contact with R. solani. Besides four clones, which had similarity to putative but as yet uncharacterized proteins, they comprised ribosomal proteins, proteins involved in transcriptional switch and regulation, amino acid and energy catabolism, multidrug resistance, and degradation of proteins and glucans. Transcription of three clones was evaluated in five T. harzianum strains under confrontation conditions with R. solani. Two clones&#8212;acetyl-xylane esterase AXE1 and endoglucanase Cel61b&#8212;showed significant upregulation during in vivo confrontation of a T. harzianum strain that successively demonstrated a very high antagonistic capability towards R. solani, while expression was progressively lower in a series of T. harzianum strains with intermediate to poor antagonistic activity. These clones are promising candidates for use as markers in the screening of improved T. harzianum biocontrol strains

Institutional Philanthropy: A Focus On Disability

In the context of the 10th anniversary of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD), the European Foundation Centre undertook a survey of its members and other institutional philanthropy actors who are funding, supporting, advocating, and partnering to advance the situation of people with disabilities in Europe and beyond, including those with disabilities related to ageing.This publication summarises the survey results which provide an up-to-date picture of EFC members and other funders active in the field of disability, whether it is part of their core mission or just one of their fields of action, and an insight to better understand their practices. The survey results are based on input from 34 philanthropic organisations. Data supplied refers to the year 2015 unless otherwise specified.The report comprises two parts:Part 1: A profile of this sample of disability funders, addressing in particular who they are, their main area(s) of focus, who they support, how they work, and if they cooperate and why.Part 2: A snapshot of 24 initiatives and projects supported by these organisations to illustrate some of their disability-related work, outlining their approach and achievements, as well as some challenges and learnings.This publication was produced with the support of the EFC's Disability Thematic Network (DTN). Network members include: King Baudouin Foundation, Essl Foundation, Fundacion Once, Fondazione Bianca del Monte di Lucca, Genio, Karuna Foundation, Light for the world, and Sabanci Vakfi

Local life and municipal services in Spain at the beginning of the 20th century

The interpretation that still prevails of the political and economic history of Spain at the beginning of the century, emphasizes the basically rural and backward character of a society that grew and was modernized very slowly. Even as late as 1932-1936, during the Second Republic in Spain, political backwardness, industrial underdevelopment and engrained agrarian conflict are common factors stressed by many authors and, in contrast, there was a lack of a solid alternative politically and economically rooted in their as yet minority urban middle classes. And «perhaps the sole outstanding fact in 1898 was the extent and unanimity of the malaise in the middle class» [PAN-MONTOJO, 1998, p.262]. Recently these ideas are being revised in search of «more subtle interpretations of the political reality which is more prosaic, but not for that reason less complex». Political historians such as Forner and García argued that political fraud, corruption and backwardness cannot explain completely and convincingly early 20th century Spain. On the contrary, they suggest that the implic it critical factor in the so-called «vieja política» (old politics) was a more general lack of civic maturity, that might have filled the established rules of the political game with democratic content [FORNER & GARCÍA, 1992, pp. 41 y ss.]; but in fact Spanish society only gradually began to fill this gap. They also add that, in such a process of growing maturity, cities played, as should be expected, a fundamental role

Fuentes belgas sobre la electrificación de los tranvías españoles. El «Recueil Financier» de Bruselas

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La electrificación de la periferia : Un tema recuperado recientemente por la historiografía

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Environmental Funding by European Foundations: Volume 5

This report is the most comprehensive study to date into support for environmental initiatives provided by European philanthropic foundations. It builds on the four earlier editions, increasing the number of foundations and grants being analysed, along with the total value of these grants.This 5th edition features a detailed analysis of the environmental grants of 127 European public-benefit foundations, who provided 5358 grants in 2018, worth a combined total of 745.6 million. These 127 foundations include many of Europe's largest providers of philanthropic grants for environmental initiatives

Group 2 innate lymphoid cells and reproduction

Regulation of the immune system and of uterine tissue homeostasis, growth, and remodelling are deeply intertwined during pregnancy and are essential for successful reproduction. Recent findings showed that tissue-resident innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are crucial regulators of both physiology and pathology of the tissues they populate. Uterine natural killer (uNK) cells are a subtype of ILCs known to regulate trophoblast invasion, uterine vascular adaptation to pregnancy, and foetal growth. We recently described additional types of ILCs in the uterus of women and mice. However, the role of these ILCs during reproduction is unknown. Among them, group 2 ILCs (ILC2s) have been previously characterised in other tissues, in which they modulate immune cells and tissue homeostasis by producing type-2 cytokines and growth factors (i.e. IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, and Amphiregulin). Based on these premises, I hypothesized that uterine ILC2s (uILC2s) regulate uterine immune homeostasis and thus contribute to successful reproduction. To test this, I first characterised the uILC subtypes present in humans and mice at various stages of the reproductive cycle. Secondly, I addressed the functional role of uILC2s during pregnancy by taking advantage of a uILC2 knockout mouse model. My results show that uterine ILC2s represent <1% and <0.1% of murine and human uterine leukocytes, respectively. However, as they can quickly produce large amounts of cytokines, uILCs are capable of potently affect both other immune cells and the surrounding tissue. Indeed, I found that compared to other tissue-resident ILC2s, uILC2s produce high levels of IL-5 and Areg even in the absence of any stimulation. On the contrary, non-uterine ILC2s mainly produce IL-13, which is lowly expressed by uILC2s. To further characterize the tissuespecific properties of uILC2s, I then performed RNAseq on uILC2s isolated from virgin, midgestation, and term murine uterus, and I compared their transcriptomes with those of ILC2s from lung, intestine, and bone marrow. Interestingly, uILC2s specifically express granzymes and genes typical of regulatory T cells. Therefore, uILC2s have tissue-specific properties and are modulated during pregnancy. Furthermore, the ability of uILC2s to produce IL-5 and Areg suggests that they may be crucial in the regulation of uterine type-2 immunity. I then studied the phenotype of $Rora^{flox/flox}Il7ra^{cre/wt}$(ILC2KO) mouse models, as well as that of mice lacking the ILC2 activating cytokine IL-33 ($IL33^{cit/cit}$; IL33KO). I examined the immune microenvironment in both the myometrium and decidua in ILC2KO mice and found alterations in type-2 cytokines and myeloid cell homeostasis. In particular, in absence of ILC2s, IL-4 and IL-5 are dramatically reduced, IL-13 is absent, and decidual inflammatory cytokines IL1β and IL-6 are increased. Furthermore, uterine dendritic cells (uDC), uterine macrophages (uMac), and uterine neutrophils (uN) increase, while uterine eosinophils (uEo) are virtually absent. These results show that uILC2s regulate uterine type-2 immunity, suggesting that uILC2s could be important during pregnancy. Accordingly, I found that lack of uILC2s leads to insufficient spiral artery remodelling and restricted foetal growth. Type-2 cytokines and in particular IL-4 regulates alternative activation of Macrophages (Mac) and Dendritic Cells (DCs), which promote the development of an anti-inflammatory environment and facilitate tissue remodelling. I hypothesised that similar mechanisms occur in the uterus and that uILC2s have a central role in the polarisation of the immune response. To explore this, I studied in more detail the characteristics of uEo, uMac, and uDCs dissected from wild type and ILC2KO mice. I found a reduction in genes associated with alternative activation in uMac and uDCs in the uterus of pregnant ILC2KO mice. Additionally, I showed that uEo are the main producers of the IL-4. This demonstrates that uILC2s promote alternative activation of myeloid cell population by modulating the uterine immune microenvironment. I then assessed the role of uILC2s-dependent type-2 immunity in inflammatory pathology following a type-1 response to bacterial infection. When challenged with LPS, pregnant ILC2KO mice showed more pronounced foetal demise. Therefore, uILC2s regulate uterine type-2 immune homeostasis and this prevents inflammatory pathology. Collectively, my work advances our knowledge of the innate immune mechanisms that control physiological and pathological events during pregnancy. These findings have implications to the field of immunology of pregnancy and may lead to clinical progress in diagnosis and prevention of infection-induced abortion in human pregnancies.Centre for trophoblast research (CTR

Disrupted PI3K p110δ Signaling Dysregulates Maternal Immune Cells and Increases Fetal Mortality In Mice.

Maternal immune cells are an integral part of reproduction, but how they might cause pregnancy complications remains elusive. Macrophages and their dual function in inflammation and tissue repair are thought to play key yet undefined roles. Altered perinatal growth underpins adult morbidity, and natural killer (NK) cells may sustain fetal growth by establishing the placental blood supply. Using a mouse model of genetic inactivation of PI3K p110δ, a key intracellular signaling molecule in leukocytes, we show that p110δ regulates macrophage dynamics and NK-cell-mediated arterial remodeling. The uterus of dams with inactive p110δ had decreased IFN-γ and MHC class II(low) macrophages but enhanced IL-6. Poor vascular remodeling and a pro-inflammatory uterine milieu resulted in fetal death or growth retardation. Our results provide one mechanism that explains how imbalanced adaptations of maternal innate immune cells to gestation affect offspring well-being with consequence perinatally and possibly into adulthood.We would like to thank Klaus Okkenhaug for the provision of the δᴰ⁹¹⁰ᴬ strain, Anne-Katrien Stark for making breeding records available, all members of the Colucci lab for helpful discussions and the staff of the NIHR Cambridge BRC Cell Phenotyping Hub for their support. This work was supported by the Cambridge NIHR BRC Cell Phenotyping Hub and by grants from The Wellcome Trust [094073/Z/10/Z] and the Centre for Trophoblast Research.This is the final version of the article. It was first available from Elsevier via http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2015.11.05

Occurrence and Etiology of Brown Apical Necrosis on Persian (English) Walnut Fruit.

In 1998, a severe fruit drop was observed in Italy, principally on cv. Lara Persian (English) walnut (Juglans regia). Dropped fruit showed a brown patch at the blossom end and blackening and rot of inner tissues. The disease, called brown apical necrosis (BAN), was investigated on fruit collected in Italy and France in 1999. In 2000, studies were carried out in three walnut orchards located in Italy and in France to substantiate the etiology of BAN. Isolations performed from inner diseased fruit tissues yielded several fungi, in decreasing frequency of isolation: species of Fusarium and Alternaria, and one species each of Cladosporium, Colletotrichum, and Phomopsis. However, only Fusarium spp. were recovered from stigmas of BAN-affected fruit. The fungi associated with BAN-diseased fruit and species composition differed among locations and over time, confirming results obtained in previous investigations. The species of Fusarium used in pathogenicity tests reproduced BAN-disease symptoms when inoculated on fruit, whereas an Alternaria alternata isolate caused only limited necrosis of the style. However, the role of the other fungi commonly isolated from BAN-diseased fruit remains to be defined. The walnut blight pathogen, Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis, occasionally was isolated from BAN-diseased fruit. No correlation was found between the extent of external brown patches and the size of inner lesions. Repeated isolations from and inoculations of fruit demonstrated that BAN can be considered a complex disease, and the inner infections originate from the style of the fruit