"I am feeling tension in my whole body": An experimental phenomenological study of empathy for pain

Introduction: Traditionally, empathy has been studied from two main perspectives: the theory-theory approach and the simulation theory approach. These theories claim that social emotions are fundamentally constituted by mind states in the brain. In contrast, classical phenomenology and recent research based on enactive theories consider empathy as the basic process of contacting others’ emotional experiences through direct bodily perception and sensation. Objective: This study aims to enrich knowledge of the empathic experience of pain by using an experimental phenomenological method. Method: Implementing an experimental paradigm used in affective neuroscience, we exposed 28 healthy adults to a video of sportspersons suffering physical accidents while practicing extreme sports. Immediately after watching the video, each participant underwent a phenomenological interview to gather data on embodied, multi-layered dimensions (bodily sensations, emotions, and motivations) and temporal aspects of empathic experience. We also performed quantitative analyses of the phenomenological categories. Results: Experiential access to the other person’s painful experience involves four main-themes. Bodily resonance: participants felt a multiplicity of bodily, affective, and kinesthetic sensations. Attentional focus: some participants centered their attention more on their own personal discomfort and sensations of rejection, while others on the pain and suffering experienced by the sportspersons. Kinesthetic motivation: some participants experienced the feeling in their bodies to avoid or escape from watching the video, while others experienced the need to help the sportspersons avoid suffering any injury while practicing extreme sports. Temporality of experience: participants witnessed temporal fluctuations in their experiences, bringing intensity changes in their bodily resonance, attentional focus, and kinesthetic motivation. Finally, two experiential structures were found: one structure is self-centered empathic experience, characterized by bodily resonance, attentional focus centered on the participant’s own experience of seeing the sportsperson suffering, and self-protective kinesthetic motivation; the other structure is other-centered empathic experience, characterized by bodily resonance, attentional focus centered on the sportsperson, and prosocial kinesthetic motivation to help them. Discussion: We show how phenomenological data may contribute to comprehending empathy for pain in social neuroscience. In addition, we address the phenomenological aspect of the enactive approach to the three dimensions of embodiment of human consciousness, especially the intersubjective dimension. Also, based on our results, we suggest an extension of the enactive theory for non-interactive social experience

Common errors and difficulties of novice therapists

La exploración de los problemas que enfrentan los psicoterapeutas novatos ha sido un tema ignorado en la investigación en psicoterapia, sin embargo es necesario investigarlo para prevenir la iatrogenia y mejorar la formación profesional. La presente investigación, considerando la mirada de psicoterapeutas novatos como de supervisores, se preguntó sobre los principales errores y dificultades comunes que cometen los terapeutas novatos de orientación sistémica. Los principales errores detectados fueron: (1 – creencias y actitud) Actitud omnipotente o excesivamente insegura y ansiosa; (2 – relación terapéutica) rigidez y falta de espontaneidad, “apurarse” al intervenir y los “enganches” del terapeuta; (3 - técnicos) problemas para diagnosticar y co-construir un motivo de consulta. La dificultad más común descrita fue el trabajo con pacientes poco motivados y cooperadores. Los resultados se discuten en relación con sus implicancias para la formación profesional.Exploring the problems that novice therapists face has been neglected as a research topic but it is necessary in order to prevent iatrogenesis and to improve professional training. This investigation, consid-ering both the novice and the expert supervisor's point of view, explored the main mistakes and difficulties of systemic-oriented novice therapists. The most important mistakes detected was: (1 - beliefs and attitude) an omnipotent, or excessively insecure and anxious attitude; (2 - relationship) lack of spontaneity, pushing too fast, and counter-transference mistakes; (3 - technical) problems in diagnosis and co-construction of the main theme for therapy. The most common difficulty was working with unmotivated and uncooperative patients. Results are discussed with their implications for professional training

La teoría de la expresión: Una aproximación holística al fenómeno del lenguaje humano

This article presents a theoretical analysis on the theory of expression from Karl Bühler’s perspective, by comparing this approach with the classic understanding of structural linguistics. To this end, the main theoretical approaches of the conceptual model were reviewed, including their origin and evolution in the history of science, to consequently examine the epistemological foundations that support this theory. The research concludes that psychology, influenced by classical linguistics, has discarded the deepest dimension of human language –the expressive dimension– evidencing poor understanding of language as a psychological phenomenon. Finally, the study shows the emergence of a new way of appreciating the human phenomenon through the theory of expression; a new form of comprehending language and physiognomy, both of them holistically integrated into the psychological experience.Este artículo presenta una reflexión teórica sobre la teoría de la expresión de Karl Bühler. Se desarrolla una comparación entre esta aproximación y la comprensión clásica de la lingüística estructural. Con este fin, se revisan los principales planteamientos teóricos del modelo conceptual, incluyendo su origen y evolución en la historia de la ciencia, para finalmente analizar los fundamentos epistemológicos que sustentan la teoría. Se concluye que la psicología, influenciada por la lingüística clásica, ha abandonado la dimensión más profunda del lenguaje humano – la dimensión expresiva – evidenciándose una escasa comprensión del lenguaje como fenómeno psicológico. Finalmente, se propone que la teoría de la expresión permite una nueva manera de comprender el fenómeno humano; una nueva forma de comprender el lenguaje y la fisionomía, integrados holísticamente en la experiencia psicológica

La experiencia de estar presente en meditadores zen: Una aproximación fenomenológica

In Zen meditation, an important component of the practice is the phenomenon of present-moment awareness. Presence can be understood as an experience of consciousness embodied in the here and now. About this object of study, the research has made an empirical approach with emphasis on the third person, to the detriment of its subjective study. The main objective of this research is to study the experience of presence in Zen meditators during meditative practice. The method of micro-phenomenological interview was used to gather information about the subjective experience of presence in meditators. To analyze the data, the transcendental phenomenology method of Moustakas was applied, which allowed finding the invariant structure of the study phenomenon. This research found that the essence of the presence experience of Zen meditators is characterized by the feeling of maintaining a pure contact with reality, which causes a change in the perception of the self, others and the surrounding world. Finally, it is argued that the results allow us to conceive meditation as a subjective experience of embodied character and of being-in-the-world, elements that are open to the intersubjective context. This perspective opens an interpretation of meditation under a relational and embodied approach.En la meditación zen, un componente importante de la práctica es el fenómeno de la conciencia del momento presente. Presencia puede ser entendida como una experiencia de conciencia encarnada en el aquí y ahora. Sobre este objeto de estudio, la investigación ha hecho un abordaje empírico con énfasis en la tercera persona, en desmedro de su estudio subjetivo. El principal objetivo de esta investigación es estudiar la experiencia de presencia en meditadores zen durante la práctica meditativa. Se utilizó el método de entrevista micro-fenomenológica para recopilar información sobre la experiencia subjetiva de presencia en meditadores. Para analizar los datos, se aplicó el método de fenomenología trascendental de Moustakas, lo que permitió encontrar la estructura invariante del fenómeno de estudio. Esta investigación encontró que la esencia de la experiencia de presencia de los meditadores zen se caracteriza por la sensación de mantener un contacto puro con la realidad, que origina un cambio en la percepción del sí mismo, los otros y el mundo circundante. Finalmente, se discute que los resultados permiten concebir la meditación como una experiencia subjetiva de carácter corporizado y de ser-en-el-mundo, elementos que están abiertos al contexto intersubjetivo. Esta perspectiva abre una interpretación de la meditación bajo un enfoque encarnado y relacional

The Reciprocal Relationship Between Gratitude and Life Satisfaction: Evidence From Two Longitudinal Field Studies

Gratitude and life satisfaction are associated with several indicators of a good life (e.g., health, pro-social behavior, and relationships). However, how gratitude and life satisfaction relate to each other over time has remained unknown until now. Although a substantial body of research has tested the link from gratitude to life satisfaction, the reverse association remains unexplored. In addition, recent cross-cultural research has questioned the link between gratitude and subjective well-being in non-Western countries, suggesting that the benefits of gratitude may only prevail in Western societies. However, previous cross-cultural studies have only compared western (e.g., American) and eastern (e.g., Asian) cultures, but this simple contrast does not adequately capture the diversity in the world. To guide further theory and practice, we therefore extended previous cross-sectional and experimental studies, by testing the bi-directional longitudinal link between gratitude and life satisfaction in a Latin American context, aiming to establish temporal precedence. We assessed two adult samples from Chile, using three-wave cross-lagged panel designs with 1 month (Study 1, N = 725) and 3 months (Study 2, N = 1,841) between waves. Both studies show, for the first time, that gratitude and life satisfaction mutually predict each other over time. The reciprocal relationships suggest the existence of a virtuous circle of human well-being: higher levels of gratitude increase life satisfaction, which in turn increases gratitude, leading to a positive spiral. Key theoretical and practical implications for the dynamics of human flourishing and field of positive psychology are discussed.status: publishe