Gender-Specific Occupational Segregation, Glass Ceiling Effects, and Earnings in Managerial Positions: Results of a Fixed Effects Model

The study analyses the gender pay gap in private-sector management positions in Germany based on data from the German Socio-Economic Panel Study (SOEP) for the years 2001-2008. It focuses in particular on gender segregation in the labor market, that is, on the unequal distribution of women and men across different occupations and on the effects of this inequality on earnings levels and gender wage differentials in management positions. Our paper is, to our knowledge, the first in Germany to use time-constant unobserved heterogeneity and gender-specific promotion probabilities to estimate wages and wage differentials for persons in managerial positions. The results of the fixed effects model show that working in a more "female" job, as opposed to a more "male" job, affects only women's wages negatively. This result remains stable after controlling for human capital endowments and other effects. Mechanisms of the devaluation of jobs not primarily held by men also negatively affect pay in management positions (evaluative discrimination) and are even more severe for women (allocative discrimination). However, the effect is notlinear; the wage penalties for women occur only in "integrated" (more equally male/female) jobs as opposed to typicallymale jobs, and not in typically female jobs. Thedevaluation of occupations that are not primarily held by men becomes even more evident when promotion probabilities are taken into account. An Oaxaca/Blinder decomposition of the wage differential between men and women in management positions shows that the full model explains 65 percent of the gender pay gap. In other words: Thirty-five percent remain unexplained; this portion reflects, for example, time-varying social and cultural conditions, such as discriminatory policies and practices in the labor market.Gender pay gap, managerial positions, gender segregation, glass-ceiling effects, Oaxaca/Blinder decomposition, fixed effects, selection bias

Glass Ceiling Effect and Earnings: The Gender Pay Gap in Managerial Positions in Germany

Although there are a variety of studies on the gender pay gap, only a few relate to managerial positions. The present study attempts to fill this gap. Managers in private companies in Germany are a highly selective group of women and men, who differ only marginally in their human capital endowments. The Oaxaca/Blinder decomposition shows that the gender pay gap in the gross monthly salary can hardly be explained using the human capital approach. Adding variables on gender-specific labor market segregation and dimensions of the household and family to the model allows more than two-thirds of the gender pay gap to be explained. However, taking selection effects in a managerial position into account (Heckman correction), the proportion explained decreases to only one-third. This reveals the real extent to which women are disadvantaged on the labor market. In addition, we observe not only that the wages in typical women's jobs are lower than in typical men's jobs but also that women are paid less than men in typical women's jobs. The two-thirds of the gender pay gap that remain unexplained represent the unobserved heterogeneity. This includes, for example, general societal and cultural conditions as well as structures and practices on the labor market and in companies that subject women to pay discrimination and pose an obstacle to them breaking the glass ceiling.Gender pay gap, managerial positions, segregation, Oaxaca/Blinder decomposition, Heckman correction

Glass Ceiling Effect and Earnings: The Gender Pay Gap in Managerial Positions in Germany

Although there are a variety of studies on the gender pay gap, only a few relate to managerial positions. The present study attempts to fill this gap. Managers in private companies in Germany are a highly selective group of women and men, who differ only marginally in their human capital endowments. The Oaxaca/Blinder decomposition shows that the gender pay gap in the gross monthly salary can hardly be explained using the human capital approach. Adding variableson gender-specific labor market segregation and dimensions of the household and family to the model allows more than two-thirds of the gender pay gap to be explained. However, taking selection effects in a managerial position into account (Heckman correction), the proportion explained decreases to only one-third. This reveals the real extent to whichwomen are disadvantaged on the labor market. In addition, we observe not only that the wages in typical women's jobs are lower than in typical men's jobs but also that women are paid less than men in typical women's jobs. The two-thirds of the gender pay gap that remain unexplained represent the unobserved heterogeneity. This includes, for example, general societal and cultural conditions as well as structures and practices on the labor market and in companies that subject women to pay discrimination and pose an obstacle to them breaking the glass ceiling.Gender pay gap, managerial positions, segregation, Oaxaca/Blinder decomposition, Heckman correction

Gender Pay Gap Lower in Large Cities than in Rural Areas

For years, the difference between the gross hourly earnings of women and of men has remained constant for German white-collar employees at about 30 percent. It is obvious that regional factors play an important role in explaining this difference. In rural areas, the gender pay gap is especially pronounced (2006: 33 percent) while in metropolitan areas it is considerably lower than the average (2006: 12 percent). This more favorable ratio is mainly due to the increased employment opportunities for highly-qualified women in cities. In addition, it is evident that where there are high levels of regional unemployment at the county level, women's pay suffers more than men's. The present study was based on the data from the German Socio-Economic Panel Study (SOEP). Focusing on white-collar salaried employees (Angestellte) allows us to analyze pay determinants on the basis of largely homogenous pay structures.Gender paygap, Metropolitan areas, Wage curve, Oaxaca-Blinder-decomposition

Gender-Specific Occupational Segregation, Glass Ceiling Effects, and Earnings in Managerial Positions: Results of a Fixed Effects Model

The study analyses the gender pay gap in private-sector management positions based on the German Socio-Economic Panel Study (SOEP) for the years 2001-2008. It focuses on occupational gender segregation, and on the effects of this inequality on earnings levels and gender wage differentials in management positions. Our paper is, to our knowledge, the first in Germany to use time-constant unobserved heterogeneity and gender-specific promotion probabilities to estimate wages and wage differentials for persons in managerial positions. The results of the fixed-effects model show that working in a more "female" job, as opposed to a more "male" job, affects only women's wages negatively. This result remains stable after controlling for human capital endowments and other effects. Mechanisms of the devaluation of jobs not primarily held by men also negatively affect pay in management positions (evaluative discrimination) and are even more severe for women (allocative discrimination). However, the effect is non-linear; the wage penalties for women occur only in "integrated" (more equally male/female) jobs as opposed to typically male jobs, and not in typically female jobs. The devaluation of occupations that are not primarily held by men becomes even more evident when promotion probabilities are taken into account. An Oaxaca/Blinder decomposition of the wage differential between men and women in management positions shows that the full model explains 65 percent of the gender pay gap. In other words: Thirty-five percent remain unexplained; this portion reflects, for example, time-varying social and cultural conditions, such as discriminatory policies and practices in the labor market.gender pay gap, managerial positions, gender segregation, glass-ceiling effects, Oaxaca/Blinder decomposition, fixed effects, selection bias

Gender-Specific Occupational Segregation, Glass Ceiling Effects, and Earnings in Managerial Positions: Results of a Fixed Effects Model

The study analyses the gender pay gap in private-sector management positions in Germany based on data from the German Socio-Economic Panel Study (SOEP) for the years 2001-2008. It focuses in particular on gender segregation in the labor market, that is, on the unequal distribution of women and men across different occupations and on the effects of this inequality on earnings levels and gender wage differentials in management positions. Our paper is, to our knowledge, the first in Germany to use time-constant unobserved heterogeneity and gender-specific promotion probabilities to estimate wages and wage differentials for persons in managerial positions. The results of the fixed effects model show that working in a more "female" job, as opposed to a more "male" job, affects only women's wages negatively. This result remains stable after controlling for human capital endowments and other effects. Mechanisms of the devaluation of jobs not primarily held by men also negatively affect pay in management positions (evaluative discrimination) and are even more severe for women (allocative discrimination). However, the effect is not linear; the wage penalties for women occur only in "integrated" (more equally male/female) jobs as opposed to typically male jobs, and not in typically female jobs. The devaluation of occupations that are not primarily held by men becomes even more evident when promotion probabilities are taken into account. An Oaxaca/Blinder decomposition of the wage differential between men and women in management positions shows that the full model explains 65 percent of the gender pay gap. In other words: Thirty-five percent remain unexplained; this portion reflects, for example, time-varying social and cultural conditions, such as discriminatory policies and practices in the labor market.Gender pay gap, managerial positions, gender segregation, glass-ceiling effects, Oaxaca/Blinder decomposition, fixed effects, selection bias

Berufswahl wichtig für Karrierechancen von Frauen und Männern

Der Anteil von Frauen in Führungspositionen der Privatwirtschaft war auch im Jahr 2007 mit 27 Prozent unterdurchschnittlich. Er erreichte nach Angaben des Sozio-oekonomischen Panels (SOEP) wieder das Niveau von vor fünf Jahren. Während weibliche Führungskräfte in hoch qualifizierten Fachpositionen und im unteren Management noch vergleichsweise häufig vertreten sind, dominieren männliche Führungskräfte das Mittel- und Topmanagement. Hinzu kommt, dass in Führungspositionen Frauen nicht nur seltener als Männer anderen Personen vorgesetzt sind, sondern ihnen sind im Schnitt auch weit weniger Personen unterstellt. Dabei mangelt es Frauen nicht an Qualifikationen - diesbezüglich weisen die Geschlechter kaum Unterschiede auf. Entscheidend ist vor allem die Beschäftigung in geschlechtstypischen Berufen, die die unterschiedlichen Aufstiegschancen von Frauen und Männern bestimmt: Berufszweige, die mehrheitlich von Frauen ausgeübt werden, bieten generell geringere Aufstiegsmöglichkeiten - für Frauen sogar in noch stärkerem Umfang als für Männer. Hinzu kommt, dass familiäre Verpflichtungen Frauen zeitlich weit mehr beanspruchen als Männer. Damit werden ihre Karrierechancen weiter beeinträchtigt. Vor allem jene, die bei der Familie zurückstecken, schaffen den beruflichen Aufstieg: 2007 waren mehr als die Hälfte der weiblichen Führungskräfte unverheiratet, fast zwei Drittel lebten ohne Kinder im Haushalt.Gender, Manager, Human capital, Segregation

Der "Gender Pay Gap" in Führungspositionen der Privatwirtschaft in Deutschland

Obwohl eine Vielzahl an Studien zum geschlechtsspezifischen Verdienstunterschied und dessen Erklärung existiert, konzentrieren sich bisher nur vergleichsweise wenige auf den "gender pay gap" in Führungspositionen, der im Fokus dieses Beitrags steht. In der hoch selektiven Gruppe der Führungskräfte in der Privatwirtschaft in Deutschland unterscheiden sich die Geschlechter in ihrer Humankapitalausstattung kaum, so dass der über eine Oaxaca/Blinder-Dekomposition ermittelte Unterschied in den Brutto-Monatsverdiensten hierüber nur sehr unzureichend zu erklären ist. Die Einbeziehung von Variablen zur geschlechtsspezifischen Segregation auf dem Arbeitsmarkt sowie haushaltsbezogener Kontrollvariablen führt zunächst dazu, dass der "gender pay gap" zu über zwei Dritteln erklärt werden kann. Das tatsächliche Ausmaß der Nachteile von Frauen am Arbeitsmarkt wird erst unter Berücksichtigung von Selektionseffekten in eine Führungsposition sichtbar: Unter Einbezug von Selektionseffekten (Heckman-Korrektur) können die in den Verdienstschätzungen berücksichtigten Merkmale den "gender pay gap" nur noch zu einem Drittel erklären. Zudem wird deutlich, dass Frauen auch innerhalb der Frauenberufe weniger verdienen als Männer (allokative Diskriminierung). Der zwei Drittel umfassende nicht erklärte Anteil am "gender pay gap" ("Resteffekt") repräsentiert die unbeobachtete Heterogenität. Hierzu gehören zum Beispiel gesellschaftliche und kulturelle Rahmenbedingungen sowie Strukturen und Praktiken auf dem Arbeitsmarkt und in Unternehmen, die zum Nachteil von Frauen wirken und den Aufstieg in eine Führungsposition erschweren.Gender Pay Gap, managers, segregation, Oaxaca/Blinder decomposition, Heckman correction

Complete high-quality genome sequence of Clostridium limosum (Hathewaya limosa) isolate 14S0207, recovered from a cow with suspected blackleg in Germany

Clostridium limosum can be found in soil and the intestinal tract of animals. In 2014, C. limosum was isolated from a suspected blackleg outbreak in cattle in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. We present a complete genome sequence of a C. limosum strain represented by a circular chromosome and three plasmids

An approach to light-frame disaster relief housing

An Approach to Light-Frame Disaster Relief Housing investigated the use of bamboo structures to provide safe, affordable and easily constructible housing in developing countries that are prone to natural disasters. The team chose to use the Cagayan Valley Region in Northern Philippines that has a demonstrated need for relief housing due to its susceptibility to high seismic activity, monsoons, and floods. The proposed solution includes a complete structural and geotechnical foundation design of a house that can resist the demand loads determined for the region. The structural system is designed using bamboo and includes a lateral force resisting system, and gravity force resisting system, and roof and floor diaphragms. The structural system ties into the foundation, which was designed to withstand flood loads and provide a proper load path from the structural system to the ground