User Interface Specification Issues for Computerized Educational Systems

Aside from the great progress in the field of humancomputer interaction, particularly in the last years the need for the development of adaptive user interfaces in several application areas has been recognized. Our research is concentrated on intelligent tutoring systems, a generation of computerized educational systems that attempt to mimic the capabilities of human tutor. In order to support the above reasoning, in this paper we elaborate on the case study of AKBB, a program intended for the development of an arbitrary domain knowledge base and of its user interface. In order to specify its design and behaviour, User Action Notation is advocated as a suitable method

TAM - A quarter century of research

Cilj ovog rada bio je istražiti temelje, razvoj, proširenja, preinake i primjene modela prihvaćanja tehnologije (TAM). Sveobuhvatni pregled literature pokazao je razvoj TAM-a kroz veliki broj znanstvenih istraživanja, s posebnim naglaskom na primjenama u području informacijske i računalne tehnologije. Prikazane su teorije i modeli koji su prethodili te utjecali na nastanak TAM modela (poput teorije razložne akcije i teorije planiranog ponašanja). Rad također donosi pregled faza razvoja i proširenja modela prihvaćanja tehnologije, počevši od konceptualnog modela do njegove proširene verzije nazvane TAM 2. Ujedno se navode i osnovne kategorije preinaka modela, te velik broj primjena u području računalne tehnologije. Analiza dosadašnjih rezultata istraživanja TAM modela upućuje na područja i smjerove budućih istraživanja koja bi mogla pridonijeti njegovu daljnjem razvoju i primjeni. Pri tome je poseban naglasak stavljen na utjecaj novih, do sada nedovoljno istraženih individualnih varijabli korisnika te njihovih potencijalnih moderatorskih uloga u modelu. Mogućnosti daljnjeg istraživanja Modela prihvaćanja tehnologije podrazumijevaju njegovu primjenu na nove tehnologije, kao i proširenje uzorka korisnika na još uvijek nedovoljno zastupljene ljude starije dobi.The goal of the paper is to investigate a Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), its origins, development, extensions, modifications and various applications. A comprehensive literature review of the model showed its development through a large number of scientific articles, particularly ones dealing with information and computer technology. The paper brings a review of the theories and models which preceded and influenced TAM, specifically the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). TAM development and extension phases, from the conceptual model to the latest model extension known as TAM 2, are presented. The paper also offers main categories of the model modifications as well as a number of applications in the computer technology field. New areas of research have emerged that could contribute to TAM’s application in the future, especially the influence of users’ individual variables and their moderating roles. The vast possibilities of the further research encompass studies with different samples of elderly users as well as an application of the model to new emerging technologies

Foundation of Adaptive Interfaces for Computerized Educational Systems

Inteligentni tutorski sustavi, ITSovi, predstavljaju generaciju računalnom podržanih sustava obrazovanja koji nastoje imitirati sposobnosti živog učitelja, prilagođavanjem kako samog sadržaja tako i načina poimanja područnog znanja u ovisnosti o učenikovim sposobnostima. Potreba stjecanja različitih područnih znanja umjesto kreiranja specijaliziranih ITSova, rezultirala je razvojem generatora inteligentnih tutorskih sustava nazvanih autorske ljuske. Višemedijske autorske ljuske osiguravaju korisnike, kako učenike, tako i učitelje, s višemedijskim interaktivnim okruženjem namijenjenim ostvarivanju procesa učenja i poučavanja. Razmatranjem inteligentnih višemedijskih autorskih ljuski zaključuje se da bi se ugradnjom prilagodljivosti u odnosno korisničko sučelje zasigurno povećala njihova djelotvornost, učinkovitost i posebno upotrebljivost. Inkrementalni postupak razvoja inteligentne višemedijske autorske ljuske s prilagodljivim sučeljem naslovljen istraživanjima prikazanim u radu temelji se na zvjezdastom ciklusu života razvoja sučelja između korisnika (učitelja i učenika) i sustava čije je središnje mjesto vrednovanje, te uključuje: (i) primjenu metodologija i principa dizajniranja i izgradnje upotrebljivih računalnih sustava općenito, (ii) specifikaciju funkcionalnosti sustava, kao i “izgleda i osjećaja” odnosnog korisničkog sučelja, (iii) formalno vrednovanje upotrebljivosti koje uključuje postavljanje kvantitativnih ciljeva izvršavanja, te empirijska ispitivanja s pravim korisnicima, (iv) dizajniranje ugradnjom mehanizma automatskog identificiranja korisnikovih individualnih razlika i promjena njezinog/njegovog znanja i ponašanja za vrijeme interakcije, te automatskog odabiranja prikladnog izgleda sučelja, (v) implementiranje i (vi) ponovno formalnim pristupom vrednovanje redizajnirane verzije sustava. Vrednovanje upotrebljivosti temeljeno na scenariju je razvijeni formalni pristup vrednovanju postojeće inteligentne višemedijske autorske ljuske Tutor-Expert System, odnosno njezinog modula/ljuske Developing namijenjene izgradnji specijaliziranih inteligentnih tutorskih sustava. Razrađena ispitna okolina i primijenjeni postupak vrednovanja omogućavaju ispitivanje udovoljavanja postavljenim kvantitativnim ciljevima izvršavanja, te ujedno ukazuju na glavne probleme interakcije. Adaptive Knowledge Base Builder, AKBB, prema pravilima struke, a u skladu s referentnim modelom prilagodljivog sustava, razvijena i vrednovana ljuska s prilagodljivim korisničkim sučeljem, omogućava izgradnju baza po volji odabranih područnih znanja. Ljuska je zasnovana na osnovnoj funkcionalnosti modula/ljuske Developing sustava Tutor-Expert System. Ljuska Adaptive Knowledge Base Builder posjeduje mehanizam identificiranja promjena kako korisnikovog znanja, tako i njezinog/njegovog ponašanja za vrijeme interakcije, te u skladu s time za automatsko odabiranje jednog od moguća tri različita dizajna sučelja – naredbeno sučelje, miješano sučelje i grafičko sučelje. Dinamičko, prilagodljivo korisničko sučelje ljuske AKBB povećava učinkovitost cjelokupnog procesa poučavanja, te ujedno osigurava harmoniju između učenika, učitelja, zadataka, okruženja, te same ljuske Adaptive Knowledge Base Builder.Intelligent tutoring systems, ITSs, are a generation of computerized educational systems, which attempt to mimic the capabilities of human teachers by adjusting the contents and the way of domain knowledge perception depending on student’s learning capabilities. As the need to cover a variety of different domain knowledge have arisen since, instead of having a number of specialized intelligent tutoring systems, ITS generators were developed usually denoted as authoring shells. Hypermedia authoring shells are intended to adjust to teachers as well as to students within a hypermedia interactive learning environment. Considering intelligent hypermedia authoring shells it can be noted that the incorporation of adaptivity into the respective user interface enables the improvement of their efficiency, effectiveness and especially usability. Incremental approach to the development of intelligent hypermedia authoring shell with adaptive interface addressed in these research is based on a star life cycle development of the interface between user (teacher or student) and system, with evaluation as a central and most focal point of the star, and encompasses: (i) employment of methodologies and design principles of usable computer systems in general, (ii) the specification of system’s functionality and “look and feel” of the respective interface, (iii) formal usability evaluation which involves setting of quantitative goals of execution, as well as empirical testing with real users, (iv) designing with the incorporation of the identification of user’s individual differences and also her/his changing knowledge and behaviour over time during the system's usage, and automatic selection of the appropriate interface design, (v) implementation, as well as (vi) formal evaluation of the redesigned version. Scenario-based usability evaluation is a formal approach to the evaluation of an existing intelligent hypermedia authoring shell Tutor-Expert System, more specifically its module/shell Developing intended for the development of specialized intelligent tutoring systems. Testing environment along with performed usability evaluation serve as a measure of whether the current interface design meets the specification and in what respect, as well as indicates main interaction problems. Adaptive Knowledge Base Builder, AKBB, is an arbitrary domain knowledge base generator with adaptive interface, developed and evaluated according to the reference model of an adaptive system. It is conceptualized upon the basic functionality of the Developing module/shell of Tutor-Expert System. Adaptive Knowledge Base Builder’s mechanism of identification of users’ individual differences and also her/his changing knowledge and behaviour over time during the system's usage, enables automatic adequate selection among three different kinds of interfaces – command interface, mixed interface and graphical interface. Dynamic, adaptive AKBB’s user interface increases the effectiveness and efficiency of the learning process and enables harmony among student, teacher, task, environment, as well as an Adaptive Knowledge Base Builder shell itself

Foundation of Adaptive Interfaces for Computerized Educational Systems

Inteligentni tutorski sustavi, ITSovi, predstavljaju generaciju računalnom podržanih sustava obrazovanja koji nastoje imitirati sposobnosti živog učitelja, prilagođavanjem kako samog sadržaja tako i načina poimanja područnog znanja u ovisnosti o učenikovim sposobnostima. Potreba stjecanja različitih područnih znanja umjesto kreiranja specijaliziranih ITSova, rezultirala je razvojem generatora inteligentnih tutorskih sustava nazvanih autorske ljuske. Višemedijske autorske ljuske osiguravaju korisnike, kako učenike, tako i učitelje, s višemedijskim interaktivnim okruženjem namijenjenim ostvarivanju procesa učenja i poučavanja. Razmatranjem inteligentnih višemedijskih autorskih ljuski zaključuje se da bi se ugradnjom prilagodljivosti u odnosno korisničko sučelje zasigurno povećala njihova djelotvornost, učinkovitost i posebno upotrebljivost. Inkrementalni postupak razvoja inteligentne višemedijske autorske ljuske s prilagodljivim sučeljem naslovljen istraživanjima prikazanim u radu temelji se na zvjezdastom ciklusu života razvoja sučelja između korisnika (učitelja i učenika) i sustava čije je središnje mjesto vrednovanje, te uključuje: (i) primjenu metodologija i principa dizajniranja i izgradnje upotrebljivih računalnih sustava općenito, (ii) specifikaciju funkcionalnosti sustava, kao i “izgleda i osjećaja” odnosnog korisničkog sučelja, (iii) formalno vrednovanje upotrebljivosti koje uključuje postavljanje kvantitativnih ciljeva izvršavanja, te empirijska ispitivanja s pravim korisnicima, (iv) dizajniranje ugradnjom mehanizma automatskog identificiranja korisnikovih individualnih razlika i promjena njezinog/njegovog znanja i ponašanja za vrijeme interakcije, te automatskog odabiranja prikladnog izgleda sučelja, (v) implementiranje i (vi) ponovno formalnim pristupom vrednovanje redizajnirane verzije sustava. Vrednovanje upotrebljivosti temeljeno na scenariju je razvijeni formalni pristup vrednovanju postojeće inteligentne višemedijske autorske ljuske Tutor-Expert System, odnosno njezinog modula/ljuske Developing namijenjene izgradnji specijaliziranih inteligentnih tutorskih sustava. Razrađena ispitna okolina i primijenjeni postupak vrednovanja omogućavaju ispitivanje udovoljavanja postavljenim kvantitativnim ciljevima izvršavanja, te ujedno ukazuju na glavne probleme interakcije. Adaptive Knowledge Base Builder, AKBB, prema pravilima struke, a u skladu s referentnim modelom prilagodljivog sustava, razvijena i vrednovana ljuska s prilagodljivim korisničkim sučeljem, omogućava izgradnju baza po volji odabranih područnih znanja. Ljuska je zasnovana na osnovnoj funkcionalnosti modula/ljuske Developing sustava Tutor-Expert System. Ljuska Adaptive Knowledge Base Builder posjeduje mehanizam identificiranja promjena kako korisnikovog znanja, tako i njezinog/njegovog ponašanja za vrijeme interakcije, te u skladu s time za automatsko odabiranje jednog od moguća tri različita dizajna sučelja – naredbeno sučelje, miješano sučelje i grafičko sučelje. Dinamičko, prilagodljivo korisničko sučelje ljuske AKBB povećava učinkovitost cjelokupnog procesa poučavanja, te ujedno osigurava harmoniju između učenika, učitelja, zadataka, okruženja, te same ljuske Adaptive Knowledge Base Builder.Intelligent tutoring systems, ITSs, are a generation of computerized educational systems, which attempt to mimic the capabilities of human teachers by adjusting the contents and the way of domain knowledge perception depending on student’s learning capabilities. As the need to cover a variety of different domain knowledge have arisen since, instead of having a number of specialized intelligent tutoring systems, ITS generators were developed usually denoted as authoring shells. Hypermedia authoring shells are intended to adjust to teachers as well as to students within a hypermedia interactive learning environment. Considering intelligent hypermedia authoring shells it can be noted that the incorporation of adaptivity into the respective user interface enables the improvement of their efficiency, effectiveness and especially usability. Incremental approach to the development of intelligent hypermedia authoring shell with adaptive interface addressed in these research is based on a star life cycle development of the interface between user (teacher or student) and system, with evaluation as a central and most focal point of the star, and encompasses: (i) employment of methodologies and design principles of usable computer systems in general, (ii) the specification of system’s functionality and “look and feel” of the respective interface, (iii) formal usability evaluation which involves setting of quantitative goals of execution, as well as empirical testing with real users, (iv) designing with the incorporation of the identification of user’s individual differences and also her/his changing knowledge and behaviour over time during the system's usage, and automatic selection of the appropriate interface design, (v) implementation, as well as (vi) formal evaluation of the redesigned version. Scenario-based usability evaluation is a formal approach to the evaluation of an existing intelligent hypermedia authoring shell Tutor-Expert System, more specifically its module/shell Developing intended for the development of specialized intelligent tutoring systems. Testing environment along with performed usability evaluation serve as a measure of whether the current interface design meets the specification and in what respect, as well as indicates main interaction problems. Adaptive Knowledge Base Builder, AKBB, is an arbitrary domain knowledge base generator with adaptive interface, developed and evaluated according to the reference model of an adaptive system. It is conceptualized upon the basic functionality of the Developing module/shell of Tutor-Expert System. Adaptive Knowledge Base Builder’s mechanism of identification of users’ individual differences and also her/his changing knowledge and behaviour over time during the system's usage, enables automatic adequate selection among three different kinds of interfaces – command interface, mixed interface and graphical interface. Dynamic, adaptive AKBB’s user interface increases the effectiveness and efficiency of the learning process and enables harmony among student, teacher, task, environment, as well as an Adaptive Knowledge Base Builder shell itself

Source Code Analysis in Programming Education: Evaluating Learning Content with Self-Organizing Maps

Due to the everchanging and evergrowing nature of programming technologies, the gap between the programming industry’s needs and the educational capabilities of both formal and informal educational environments has never been wider. However, the need to learn computer programming has never been greater, regardless of the motivation behind it. The number of programming concepts to be taught is increasing over time, while the amount of time available for education and training usually remains the same. The objective of this research was to analyze the source codes used in many educational systems to teach fundamental programming concepts to learners, regardless of their prior experience in programming. A total of 25 repositories containing 3882 Python modules were collected for the analysis. Through self-organization of the collected content, we obtained very compelling results about code structure, distribution, and differences. Based on those results, we concluded that Self-Organizing Maps are a powerful tool for both content and knowledge management, because they can highlight problems in the curriculum’s density as well as transparently indicate which programming concepts it has successfully observed and learned to recognize. Based on the level of transparency exhibited by Self-Organizing Maps, it is safe to say that they could be used in future research to enhance both human and machine learning of computer programming. By achieving this level of transparency, such an Artificial Intelligence system would be able to assist in overall computer programming education by communicating what should be taught, what needs to be learned, and what is known