El encaje de la fiscalía europea en el proceso penal español

En el presente Trabajo de Fin de Grado se realiza un estudio del encaje en el proceso penal español de la Fiscalía Europea, creada recientemente con el Reglamento 2017/1939, mediante una cooperación reforzada entre Estados miembros de la UE. En primer lugar, se analiza en profundidad su origen, sus antecedentes y las etapas de su evolución. Después, para un mejor entendimiento de la materia, se explica su ámbito de aplicación, competencias, estructura y funcionamiento. En tercer lugar, se desarrolla la importancia que tiene su inclusión en el Derecho español, puesto que el sistema procesal penal vigente es incompatible con el funcionamiento de la Fiscalía y supone el pretexto perfecto para la necesaria reforma que precisa nuestra Ley de Enjuiciamiento Criminal, propuesta en el Anteproyecto de 2020. Por último, tras la reciente puesta en marcha del organismo, se analiza su inclusión actual en el sistema español mediante el Proyecto de Ley Orgánica de la Fiscalía Europea.This Final Degree Project studies how the European Public Prosecutor's Office, recently established by means of Regulation (EU) 2017/1939 through enhanced cooperation between EU Member States, fits into the Spanish criminal procedure. Firstly, an in-depth analysis is made of its origin, its background and the stages of its evolution. Then, for a better understanding of the subject, its scope, competences, structure and functioning are explained. Thirdly, the importance of its inclusion in Spanish law is assessed, given that the current criminal procedural system is incompatible with the functioning of the Public Prosecutor's Office and is the perfect pretext for the necessary reform required by our Criminal Procedure Act, proposed in the 2020 Draft Text. Finally, following the recent start of operations of the body, its current inclusion in the Spanish system by means of the Project of Ley Orgánica on the European Public Prosecutor's Office is analysed.Departamento de Derecho Constitucional, Procesal y Eclesiástico del EstadoGrado en Derech

Normativa de la Unión Europea sobre protección del consumidor en el comercio electrónico

En el presente Trabajo se realiza un estudio de la normativa proveniente de la Unión Europea en materia de protección al consumidor en el contexto del comercio en línea. En primer lugar, haremos un análisis del surgimiento del e-commerce, así como de su expansión y los retos que ha supuesto la misma a nivel legislativo para las autoridades de la Unión. Tras ello, estudiaremos las etapas por las que ha pasado la regulación normativa sobre protección del consumidor desde los inicios del comercio electrónico hasta nuestros días. Después, destacaremos los derechos más relevantes que el consumidor ostenta en este ámbito. Por último, cerraremos el trabajo con unas conclusiones acerca de lo estudiado.Departamento de Derecho Mercantil, Derecho del Trabajo e Internacional PrivadoMáster en Estudios Avanzados en la Unión Europe

Plant-Symbiotic Fungi as Chemical Engineers: Multi-Genome Analysis of the Clavicipitaceae Reveals Dynamics of Alkaloid Loci

The fungal family Clavicipitaceae includes plant symbionts and parasites that produce several psychoactive and bioprotective alkaloids. The family includes grass symbionts in the epichloae clade (Epichloë and Neotyphodium species), which are extraordinarily diverse both in their host interactions and in their alkaloid profiles. Epichloae produce alkaloids of four distinct classes, all of which deter insects, and some—including the infamous ergot alkaloids—have potent effects on mammals. The exceptional chemotypic diversity of the epichloae may relate to their broad range of host interactions, whereby some are pathogenic and contagious, others are mutualistic and vertically transmitted (seed-borne), and still others vary in pathogenic or mutualistic behavior. We profiled the alkaloids and sequenced the genomes of 10 epichloae, three ergot fungi (Claviceps species), a morning-glory symbiont (Periglandula ipomoeae), and a bamboo pathogen (Aciculosporium take), and compared the gene clusters for four classes of alkaloids. Results indicated a strong tendency for alkaloid loci to have conserved cores that specify the skeleton structures and peripheral genes that determine chemical variations that are known to affect their pharmacological specificities. Generally, gene locations in cluster peripheries positioned them near to transposon-derived, AT-rich repeat blocks, which were probably involved in gene losses, duplications, and neofunctionalizations. The alkaloid loci in the epichloae had unusual structures riddled with large, complex, and dynamic repeat blocks. This feature was not reflective of overall differences in repeat contents in the genomes, nor was it characteristic of most other specialized metabolism loci. The organization and dynamics of alkaloid loci and abundant repeat blocks in the epichloae suggested that these fungi are under selection for alkaloid diversification. We suggest that such selection is related to the variable life histories of the epichloae, their protective roles as symbionts, and their associations with the highly speciose and ecologically diverse cool-season grasses

Plant-symbiotic fungi as chemical engineers: multi-genome analysis of the Clavicipitaceae reveals dynamics of alkaloid Loci

The fungal family Clavicipitaceae includes plant symbionts and parasites that produce several psychoactive and bioprotective alkaloids. The family includes grass symbionts in the epichloae clade (Epichloë and Neotyphodium species), which are extraordinarily diverse both in their host interactions and in their alkaloid profiles. Epichloae produce alkaloids of four distinct classes, all of which deter insects, and some—including the infamous ergot alkaloids—have potent effects on mammals. The exceptional chemotypic diversity of the epichloae may relate to their broad range of host interactions, whereby some are pathogenic and contagious, others are mutualistic and vertically transmitted (seed-borne), and still others vary in pathogenic or mutualistic behavior. We profiled the alkaloids and sequenced the genomes of 10 epichloae, three ergot fungi (Claviceps species), a morning-glory symbiont (Periglandula ipomoeae), and a bamboo pathogen (Aciculosporium take), and compared the gene clusters for four classes of alkaloids. Results indicated a strong tendency for alkaloid loci to have conserved cores that specify the skeleton structures and peripheral genes that determine chemical variations that are known to affect their pharmacological specificities. Generally, gene locations in cluster peripheries positioned them near to transposon-derived, AT-rich repeat blocks, which were probably involved in gene losses, duplications, and neofunctionalizations. The alkaloid loci in the epichloae had unusual structures riddled with large, complex, and dynamic repeat blocks. This feature was not reflective of overall differences in repeat contents in the genomes, nor was it characteristic of most other specialized metabolism loci. The organization and dynamics of alkaloid loci and abundant repeat blocks in the epichloae suggested that these fungi are under selection for alkaloid diversification. We suggest that such selection is related to the variable life histories of the epichloae, their protective roles as symbionts, and their associations with the highly speciose and ecologically diverse cool-season grasses

MicroRNAs in the Neural Retina

The health and function of the visual system rely on a collaborative interaction between diverse classes of molecular regulators. One of these classes consists of transcription factors, which are known to bind to DNA and control the transcription activities of their target genes. For a long time, it was thought that the transcription factors were the only regulators of gene expression. More recently, however, a novel class of regulators emerged. This class consists of a large number of small noncoding endogenous RNAs, namely, miRNAs. The miRNAs compose an essential component of posttranscriptional gene regulation, since they ultimately control the fate of gene transcripts. The retina, as a part of the central nervous system, is a well-established model for unraveling the molecular mechanisms underlying neuronal and glial functions. Numerous recent efforts have been made towards identification of miRNAs and their inferred roles in the visual pathway. In this review, we summarize the current state of our knowledge regarding the expression and function of miRNA in the neural retina and we discuss their potential uses as biomarkers for some retinal disorders

MicroRNAs in the neural retina

The health and function of the visual system rely on a collaborative interaction between diverse classes of molecular regulators. One of these classes consists of transcription factors, which are known to bind to DNA and control the transcription activities of their target genes. For a long time, it was thought that the transcription factors were the only regulators of gene expression. More recently, however, a novel class of regulators emerged. This class consists of a large number of small noncoding endogenous RNAs, namely, miRNAs. The miRNAs compose an essential component of posttranscriptional gene regulation, since they ultimately control the fate of gene transcripts. The retina, as a part of the central nervous system, is a well-established model for unraveling the molecular mechanisms underlying neuronal and glial functions. Numerous recent efforts have been made towards identification of miRNAs and their inferred roles in the visual pathway. In this review, we summarize the current state of our knowledge regarding the expression and function of miRNA in the neural retina and we discuss their potential uses as biomarkers for some retinal disorders

Comparisons of Ribosomal Protein Gene Promoters Indicate Superiority of Heterologous Regulatory Sequences for Expressing Transgenes in <i>Phytophthora infestans</i>

<div><p>Molecular genetics approaches in <i>Phytophthora</i> research can be hampered by the limited number of known constitutive promoters for expressing transgenes and the instability of transgene activity. We have therefore characterized genes encoding the cytoplasmic ribosomal proteins of <i>Phytophthora</i> and studied their suitability for expressing transgenes in <i>P</i>. <i>infestans</i>. <i>Phytophthora</i> spp. encode a standard complement of 79 cytoplasmic ribosomal proteins. Several genes are duplicated, and two appear to be pseudogenes. Half of the genes are expressed at similar levels during all stages of asexual development, and we discovered that the majority share a novel promoter motif named the PhRiboBox. This sequence is enriched in genes associated with transcription, translation, and DNA replication, including tRNA and rRNA biogenesis. Promoters from the three <i>P</i>. <i>infestans</i> genes encoding ribosomal proteins S9, L10, and L23 and their orthologs from <i>P</i>. <i>capsici</i> were tested for their ability to drive transgenes in stable transformants of <i>P</i>. <i>infestans</i>. Five of the six promoters yielded strong expression of a GUS reporter, but the stability of expression was higher using the <i>P</i>. <i>capsici</i> promoters. With the <i>RPS9</i> and <i>RPL10</i> promoters of <i>P</i>. <i>infestans</i>, about half of transformants stopped making GUS over two years of culture, while their <i>P</i>. <i>capsici</i> orthologs conferred stable expression. Since cross-talk between native and transgene loci may trigger gene silencing, we encourage the use of heterologous promoters in transformation studies.</p></div

A causal mediation model of ischemia reperfusion injury in the retina

<div><p>The goal of this study is to develop a model that explains the relationship between microRNAs, transcription factors, and their co-target genes. This relationship was previously reported in gene regulatory loops associated with 24 hour (24h) and 7 day (7d) time periods following ischemia-reperfusion injury in a rat’s retina. Using a model system of retinal ischemia-reperfusion injury, we propose that microRNAs first influence transcription factors, which in turn act as mediators to influence transcription of genes via triadic regulatory loops. Analysis of the relative contributions of direct and indirect regulatory influences on genes revealed that a substantial fraction of the regulatory loops (69% for 24 hours and 77% for 7 days) could be explained by causal mediation. Over 40% of the mediated loops in both time points were regulated by transcription factors only, while about 20% of the loops were regulated entirely by microRNAs. The remaining fractions of the mediated regulatory loops were cooperatively mediated by both microRNAs and transcription factors. The results from these analyses were supported by the patterns of expression of the genes, transcription factors, and microRNAs involved in the mediated loops in both post-ischemic time points. Additionally, network motif detection for the mediated loops showed a handful of time specific motifs related to ischemia-reperfusion injury in a rat’s retina. In summary, the effects of microRNAs on genes are mediated, in large part, via transcription factors.</p></div