The seven forms of challenges in the wildlife trade

Initiatives that aim to regulate the international wildlife trade must take into account its multiple and often complex dimensions in order to be effective. To do this, it is essential to understand the interactions between three of the key dimensions of the wildlife trade: (1) taxonomic unit, (2) geographic origin, and (3) product form and transformation. We propose a framework to provide a structured approach to defining the complexities of the wildlife trade, based on Rabinowitz’s seven forms of rarity. We demonstrate the complexities and how they apply to our framework using two contrasting examples: the trade in elephant ivory, and the horticultural orchid trade. Further we use the framework to map different traceability solutions. To be as efficient as possible, efforts to tackle the illegal and unsustainable utilisation of wildlife should take a more structured approach. This framework identifies challenges that current initiatives may face, how they may interact and provides a structure for designing future interventions

Characterising the structure and function of international wildlife trade networks in the age of online communication

The international wildlife trade supports livelihoods but can seriously threaten species if not controlled. The Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) monitors and controls trade in over 35,000 at risk species, over 70% of which are orchids. Mitigating the negative effects of illegal wildlife trade is difficult as traders are motivated by the large potential profits (an estimated $7-10 billion per year in total) to frequently adopt new methods to avoid detection, such as the increasing use of the internet as a marketplace. In this thesis I use the international orchid horticultural trade as a case study in which to explore issues relating to the structure and function of online wildlife trade networks. I start by investigating consumer behaviour, one of the major gaps in knowledge relating to the function of wildlife trade networks. First I test the use of choice experiments to reveal information about consumer preferences, with a focus on identifying particular orchid attributes that may drive demand. I also identify specific groups of consumers who may be buying from the illegal market, with a particular focus on those buying online. I then extend this focus on behaviour to explore non-compliance with CITES rules amongst an international group of orchid growers. I test the use of a specialized questioning method known as the Unmatched Count Technique alongside direct questions to identify which types of growers are breaking the rules and why. I then move on to focus on the structure of trade networks currently operating online, beginning with a gap analysis of access and benefit sharing from the online orchid trade in Southeast Asia, to identify countries that are not selling their own species. The region is a centre of orchid diversity and export but the lower income countries are not currently benefitting from the widespread online trade in their own species. Following the study of formal online trade I switch to the informal trade operating within orchid themed groups on an international social media website. I use social network analysis to identify closely linked communities within the wider network and make recommendations for how best to communicate with these networks. I also assess the prevalence of both legal and illegal trade taking place via posts within these groups. The findings of this thesis have the potential for application to the conservation of species threatened by wildlife trade and the methods used provide new potential approaches to studying the structure and function of online trade networks in particular. My findings address key gaps in conservation knowledge relating to consumer behaviour, online trade networks and the efficacy of current regulations. For policy makers and practitioners it emphasises the importance of a coordinated and adaptive approach to tackling illegal online wildlife trade and strengthening the legal trade. It also highlights the current status of the orchid trade and emphasises the current lack of conservation attention being given to the trade in plants

The wild origin dilemma

The sustainable production and trade of plants, animals, and their products, including through artificial propagation and captive breeding, is an important strategy to supply the global wildlife market, particularly when the trade in wild specimens is restricted by CITES or other wildlife trade legislation. However, these production methods can become a potential mechanism for the laundering of material illegally collected from the wild, leading to recent calls for the development of traceability methods to determine the origin of traded products. Currently, identifying wild origin can be complex and may require expert knowledge and/or resource intensive molecular techniques. Here we show, using CITES Appendix I slipper orchids as a model system, that production times can be used as a threshold to identify plants in trade that have a high likelihood of being of wild origin. We suggest that this framework could be used by enforcement officers, online vendors, and others to flag material of potential concern for orchids and other high value plants in trade. Specifically, this knowledge combined with nomenclature and the list of CITES Trade Database could be used to construct a species watch list and automate online searches. The results suggest that had this been applied, questions would have been raised regarding online sales of three recently described species

Assessing the extent of access and benefit sharing in the wildlife trade : lessons from horticultural orchids in Southeast Asia

The equitable sharing of benefits from natural resources is a key target of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Trade in its native species is one way in which a country can potentially benefit from its natural resources, and even small-scale traders can now access global markets online. However, little is known about the extent of benefit sharing for many products, and to what extent the appropriate processes and permits are being used. We surveyed online trade in a lucrative and widely-sold product in Southeast Asia (horticultural orchids), to assess the extent of access and benefit sharing. In total, 20.8% (n=1120) of orchid species from the region were being sold. Although 7/10 countries were trading, five had very little or no trade in their native species, and the majority of recently described endemic species being traded from non-range states had no reported CITES exports from their country of origin. We suggest that addressing access and benefit sharing gaps requires wider recognition of the problem, coupled with capacity building in the countries currently benefitting least: Laos, Myanmar and Cambodia. The priority should be to increase botanical capacity and enable these countries to better control the commercialization and trade of their native species

Five reasons people buy illegal wildlife products – and how to stop them

First paragraph: A British tourist on a tropical beach poses for a photo with a cute monkey-like animal. A Vietnamese man buys some rhino-horn powder and brags to his friends about its potency. An orchid collector admires their latest purchase, a stunning bright-pink flower, without worrying too much about where it came from.https://theconversation.com/five-reasons-people-buy-illegal-wildlife-products-and-how-to-stop-them-14549

Using consumer preferences to characterize the trade of wild‐collected ornamental orchids in China

Over-exploitation of wildlife for trade threatens taxa globally. Interest in demand-side approaches to address this problem has grown but understanding of how consumer preferences shape demand remains limited. To quantify the role of consumer preferences for wild orchids in China’s horticultural market, we used conjoint analysis to determine which attributes are preferred by orchid owners and non-owners in two socio-economically contrasting areas of South China. Across all respondents, price was the most important attribute followed by flower colour. Whilst Xishuangbanna participants exhibited a slight preference for wild over cultivated plants, origin (wild/cultivated) was of minimal importance. We also measured awareness of orchid import regulations. Most did not recognise the CITES logo, and knowledge of import laws was significantly lower in Hong Kong than in Xishuangbanna. Our findings suggest that trade in wild ornamental orchids in South China is supply-driven, and strengthened regulations might be effective in reducing over-exploitation

Heterogeneity in consumer preferences for orchids in international trade and the potential for the use of market research methods to study demand for wildlife

The demand for wildlife products drives an illegal trade estimated to be worth up to $10 billion per year, ranking it amongst the top transnational crimes in terms of value. Orchids are one of the best-selling plants in the legal horticultural trade but are also traded illegally and make up 70% of all species listed by the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). To study consumer preferences for horticultural orchids we use choice experiments to survey 522 orchid buyers online and at large international orchid shows. Using latent class modelling we show that different groups of consumers in our sample have distinct preferences, and that these groups are based on gender, genera grown, online purchasing and type of grower. Over half of our sample, likely to be buyers of mass-produced orchids, prefer white, multi-flowered plants. Of greater conservation interest were a smaller group consisting of male hobbyist growers who buy their orchids online, and who were willing to pay significantly more for species that are rare in trade. This is the first in-depth study of consumer preferences in the international orchid trade and our findings confirm the importance of rarity as a driver of hobbyist trade. We show that market-research methods are a new tool for conservationists that could provide evidence for more effective conservation of species threatened by trade, especially via campaigns that focus on demand reduction or behaviour change

Men ask more questions than women at a scientific conference.

Gender inequity in science and academia, especially in senior positions, is a recognised problem. The reasons are poorly understood, but include the persistence of historical gender ratios, discrimination and other factors, including gender-based behavioural differences. We studied participation in a professional context by observing question-asking behaviour at a large international conference with a clear equality code of conduct that prohibited any form of discrimination. Accounting for audience gender ratio, male attendees asked 1.8 questions for each question asked by a female attendee. Amongst only younger researchers, male attendees also asked 1.8 questions per female question, suggesting the pattern cannot be attributed to the temporary problem of demographic inertia. We link our findings to the 'chilly' climate for women in STEM, including wider experiences of discrimination likely encountered by women throughout their education and careers. We call for a broader and coordinated approach to understanding and addressing the barriers to women and other under-represented groups. We encourage the scientific community to recognise the context in which these gender differences occur, and evaluate and develop methods to support full participation from all attendees

Applying a co-design approach with key stakeholders to design interventions to reduce illegal wildlife consumption

1. Co-design, an approach that seeks to incorporate the experiences and perspectives of different stakeholders, is increasingly being used to develop audience-oriented behaviour change interventions. 2. The complexity of wildlife consumption behaviour makes the co-design approach an important potential tool for the design of conservation interventions that aim to reduce illegal wildlife trade. Yet, little is known about how to adapt and apply the co-design approach to the wildlife trade sector. 3. Here, we applied a co-design approach to develop interventions aimed at reducing illegal animal-based medicine consumption in China. We conducted three workshops with key stakeholders: consumers of animal-based medicines, pharmacy workers who sell them and traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) doctors who prescribe them. We then developed a theory of change to ensure the relevance of the co-designed intervention prototypes. 4. Our co-design process identified five main pathways of interventions, including two inclusive solutions that may have been previously overlooked in behaviour change work in this context. These were an intervention to promote the appropriate use of TCM and one to increase consumers' capacity to identify the legality of products. Our prototype interventions also enhanced existing views related to the role of medical practitioners in health-risk communication. 5. We used our co-design process and reflections on its application to this specific market to provide guidelines for future conservation program planning in the broader wildlife trade context. Some intervention prototypes produced during co-design may need wider stakeholder involvement to increase their feasibility for implementation. 6. We show that the co-design process can integrate multiple stakeholders' perspectives in the ideation stage, and has the potential to produce inclusive intervention designs that could drive innovation in conservation efforts to reduce illegal consumption of a range of wild species

Net positive outcomes for nature

Much research and policy effort is being expended on seeking ways to conserve living nature while enabling the economic and social development needed to increase global equity and end poverty. We propose that this will only be possible if the language of policy shifts away from setting conservation targets that focus on avoiding losses and towards developing processes that consider net outcomes for biodiversity