新たな時代を迎えた学校図書館理論の展開

В работе рассматриваются ГИС-технологии как средство формирования картографических умений школьников, а так же проблемы и перспективы их применения. В том числе рассмотрены методические условия формирования картографических умений при применении данной технологии

看護学生が臨床場面を観察する時のアセスメント力を視覚情報から可視化する試み

Objective：To investigate whether the assessment capabilities of nursing students can be clarified from the observation contents of a questionnaire-based survey and the descriptive contents of thought processes using visual information to visualize the trajectories of their cognitive processes for patient observation.　Methods：Still images of model dummies receiving oxygen therapy and fluid therapy were shown to five third-year nursing college students who had taken all courses prior to practical training in different areas of nursing，and gaze measurements and a questionnaire-based survey were conducted.　Results：The students fixed their gazes the longest and the most frequently on intravenous（ IV）infusions，followed by oxygen inhalation and aspiration. Gaze trajectories followed a pattern of first looking at the face，perfunctorily checking all areas，and then carefully looking at each area considered necessary for observation，such as IV infusions，oxygen inhalation and aspiration. Four of the five students began by looking at the face and all of the students stopped to observe IVinfusions，oxygen inhalation，and aspiration for 2 seconds or longer.　In the studentsʼ descriptions of IV infusions，on which students fixated the longest and the most frequently，four students described noticing that “an IV infusion was attached” and thought that “drugs and other fluids were being fed into the body,” “a risk of IV infusion-related complications existed,” and “they would check for loosening of the needle or any bleeding.” Furthermore，“infusion management” and “ensuring reliable IV infusion management and an IV route” were described by the students as necessary support.　Discussion：The students surveyed in this study appeared to recognize that oxygen inhalation and IV infusions are areas that must be observed. Current practical training in nursing is aprocess of acquiring knowledge and experience; however，the findings of this study suggest that “the ability to anticipate,” “the ability to estimate safety and pain,” and “the ability to predict risks” are also being nurtured in students. These abilities allow students to use observations to recognize problems，such as the possibility that an IV needle may have come loose or that a patient may be receiving insufficient oxygen.The assessment capabilities of nursing students could conceivably be understood by visualizing the gazes fixed on focused images　and analyzing in conjunction with the observation contents of a questionnaire-based survey and the descriptive contents of thought processes. 　Increasing opportunities for students to observe nursing care through clinical images and increasing experiences that confirm knowledge，skills，and coping strategies that are necessary together with teachers could enhance studentsʼ assessment capabilities.目　的：本研究の目的は，動作を伴う視線計測に関する先行研究から，視線の測定方法，分析方法，対象者数の妥当性を明らかにすることである。方　法：文献の選定には，CiNii Articles，医学中央雑誌Web 版（Ver.5），Medical Online を用い，キーワードは「視線計測」「アイマークレコーダ」「注視」とした。得られた文献のうち，選定基準に合致した文献23 件を分析対象とした。帰納的に内容を分析し，機器の条件設定，対象者数，分析指標等をマトリックスシートに整理し，視線の測定方法や分析方法の妥当性を検討した。結　果：視線計測機器の条件設定において，眼球運動の測定には瞳孔角膜反射法が多く用いられており，視野カメラレンズには水平角92°のレンズが最も多く用いられていた。対象者と分析処理方法について，対象者5 名以下では視線パターンを把握することを目的としており，統計的検定は行われていなかった。一方で，11 名以上を対象とした文献では，若齢者と比較した高齢者の視線，非熟練者と比較した熟練者の視線の特徴を統計学的検定から明らかにしていた。分析指標としては「注視時間」「注視回数」「注視項目変化表」「視線軌跡」が多く用いられていた。考　察：動作を伴う視線計測から熟練者の技の可視化，新人看護師や看護学生の技術習得，患者教育に繋げるためには，モバイル型視線計測機器を用い，動作環境に合わせた視野カメラレンズ，キャリブレーション方法を選択する必要がある。また，10 名以上を対象とした注視時間や注視回数の比較，注視項目変化表の分析より，動作中の思考や認知のプロセスを推定することが可能になると示された原

Cryptochrome Genes Are Highly Expressed in the Ovary of the African Clawed Frog, Xenopus tropicalis

Cryptochromes (CRYs) are flavoproteins sharing high homology with photolyases. Some of them have function(s) including transcription regulation in the circadian clock oscillation, blue-light photoreception for resetting the clock phase, and light-dependent magnetoreception. Vertebrates retain multiple sets of CRY or CRY-related genes, but their functions are yet unclear especially in the lower vertebrates. Although CRYs and the other circadian clock components have been extensively studied in the higher vertebrates such as mice, only a few model species have been studied in the lower vertebrates. In this study, we identified two CRYs, XtCRY1 and XtCRY2 in Xenopus tropicalis, an excellent experimental model species. Examination of tissue specificity of their mRNA expression by real-time PCR analysis revealed that both the XtCRYs showed extremely high mRNA expression levels in the ovary. The mRNA levels in the ovary were about 28-fold (XtCry1) and 48-fold (XtCry2) higher than levels in the next abundant tissues, the retina and kidney, respectively. For the functional analysis of the XtCRYs, we cloned circadian positive regulator XtCLOCK and XtBMAL1, and found circadian enhancer E-box in the upstream of XtPer1 gene. XtCLOCK and XtBMAL1 exhibited strong transactivation from the XtPer1 E-box element, and both the XtCRYs inhibited the XtCLOCK:XtBMAL1-mediated transactivation, thereby suggesting this element to drive the circadian transcription. These results revealed a conserved main feedback loop in the X. tropicalis circadian clockwork and imply a possible physiological importance of CRYs in the ovarian functions such as synthesis of steroid hormones and/or control of estrus cycles via the transcription regulation

doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.0005

It is obvious, at least qualitatively, that small animals move their locomotory apparatus faster than large animals: small insects move their wings invisibly fast, while large birds flap their wings slowly. However, quantitative observations have been difficult to obtain from free-ranging swimming animals. We surveyed the swimming behaviour of animals ranging from 0.5 kg seabirds to 30 000 kg sperm whales using animalborne accelerometers. Dominant stroke cycle frequencies of swimming specialist seabirds and marine mammals were proportional to mass K0.29 (R 2 Z0.99, nZ17 groups), while propulsive swimming speeds of 1-2 m s K1 were independent of body size. This scaling relationship, obtained from breath-hold divers expected to swim optimally to conserve oxygen, does not agree with recent theoretical predictions for optimal swimming. Seabirds that use their wings for both swimming and flying stroked at a lower frequency than other swimming specialists of the same size, suggesting a morphological trade-off with wing size and stroke frequency representing a compromise. In contrast, foot-propelled diving birds such as shags had similar stroke frequencies as other swimming specialists. These results suggest that muscle characteristics may constrain swimming during cruising travel, with convergence among diving specialists in the proportions and contraction rates of propulsive muscles. Keywords: accelerometer; power spectral density; dive; free-ranging; scaling; optimal INTRODUCTION In a Friday Evening Discourse given at the Royal Institution in 1949 Direct observations have often been used to record movements of flying animals MATERIAL AND METHODS We compared the stroke frequencies and swimming speeds of a range of animals in relation to their body sizes. Owing to morphological differences among species, body mass was used as an index of body size. Morphological measurements were used to estimate mass for adult Weddell seals , leatherback turtles and sperm whales Field experiments using accelerometers were conducted from tropical to Antarctic regions. Detailed protocols of the field experiments were already published for the sperm whale (French Guiana, South America, May 2001. Study protocols followed those of the above-mentioned published studies. We used acceleration data loggers (D2GT and PD2GT, Little Leonardo Ltd, Tokyo; Dtag, the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution; We could detect the duration of each stroke cycle from the time-series data, but our goal was to determine the dominant stroke cycle frequency for each animal. The periodic properties of the acceleration signal allowed us to apply a Fourier Transform to determine the dominant frequency. Power spectral density (PSD) was calculated from the entire acceleration dataset of each animal, or a subsample during identified foraging or migration behaviour to determine the dominant stroke cycle frequency using a Fast Fourier Transformation with a computer program package, IGOR PRO (WaveMetric, Inc., Lake Oswego, OR, USA). For the sperm whale, the bottom phase of the dive was not used as it is typified by body rotations, which can occur at similar rates to the fluking action. Stroke frequency and body size of animals K. Sato et al. 473 Proc. R. Soc. B (2007) 3. RESULTS Seals move their rear flippers side-to-side and these movements are detected as fluctuations in lateral acceleration along the transverse axis of the body (Mirounga angustirostris; with R 2 Z0.99 (nZ17, p!0.0001). The 95% confidence interval for the exponent was from K0.28 to K0.30. In contrast, the mean propulsive swim speed (U ) among these species was independent of body mass in the log-log analysis (UZ1.88 m K0.05 , R 2 Z0.18, nZ17, pZ0.09). Sperm whales of more than 30 tons, 300 kg seals and 0.5 kg seabirds all swam at mean swim speeds around 1-2 m s K1 during transit between the sea surface and the foraging depths (table 1). DISCUSSION According to experimental measurements based on respirometers in water tunnels and the doubly labelled water technique, the optimum swim speed was proportional to mass 0.27 Stroke frequency and body size of animals K. Sato et al. 475 Proc. R. Soc. B K1 ). Why these free-ranging animals did not follow the theoretical and experimental predictions for optimal swimming speed is a question we cannot answer now. The constructal model The isometric model proposed by According to the present study, swim speed (U ) was independent of body size, therefore the frequency is expected to be proportional to area divided by mass (S/m), which is expected to be proportional to the length K1 or mass K1/3 . Results of the present study were obtained from morphologically diverse animals. Nonetheless, f is inversely proportional to m K0.29 , close to the predicted value of mass K1/3 , implying that diving specialists among seabirds and marine mammals have evolved similar proportions of propulsive muscles and muscle contraction rates during cruising travel. The scaling relationship was very strong among swimming specialists during contexts when they were predicted to swim efficiently. Moreover, interesting deviations from the regression line (see Japanese flounders Paralichthys olivaceus had lower stroke frequencies than other swimming specialists (open pink circle i

Lunar Phase-Dependent Expression of Cryptochrome and a Photoperiodic Mechanism for Lunar Phase-Recognition in a Reef Fish, Goldlined Spinefoot

Lunar cycle-associated physiology has been found in a wide variety of organisms. Recent study has revealed that mRNA levels of Cryptochrome (Cry), one of the circadian clock genes, were significantly higher on a full moon night than on a new moon night in coral, implying the involvement of a photoreception system in the lunar-synchronized spawning. To better establish the generalities surrounding such a mechanism and explore the underlying molecular mechanism, we focused on the relationship between lunar phase, Cry gene expression, and the spawning behavior in a lunar-synchronized spawner, the goldlined spinefoot (Siganus guttatus), and we identified two kinds of Cry genes in this animal. Their mRNA levels showed lunar cycle-dependent expression in the medial part of the brain (mesencephalon and diencephalon) peaking at the first quarter moon. Since this lunar phase coincided with the reproductive phase of the goldlined spinefoot, Cry gene expression was considered a state variable in the lunar phase recognition system. Based on the expression profiles of SgCrys together with the moonlight's pattern of timing and duration during its nightly lunar cycle, we have further speculated on a model of lunar phase recognition for reproductive control in the goldlined spinefoot, which integrates both moonlight and circadian signals in a manner similar to photoperiodic response