A meta-analysis of recent research on the social psychology of language

The social psychology of language is a complex, multi-layered and obviously multi-disciplinary field of enquiry. This paper outlines the territory of this sub-discipline of applied linguistics, and gives an overview of the current theories, constructs, models and tools current in the field. It also provides a broad picture of recent approaches to empirical research in the field. This range of theoretical perspectives, research methods and interdisciplinary applications was found during a meta-analysis of 169 abstracts that were published between 2001 and 2003. Analysis of these abstracts suggested an increasing range of socio-psychological constructs incorporated into studies of applied linguistics, especially in relation to second language acquisition and use. There also appeared to be a growing trend among social psychologists to involve linguistics more systematically in their research

Differences in Situational Awareness and How to Manage Them in Development of Complex Systems

Situationsmedvetenhet (Eng. Situational Awareness), (SA), handlar om att ha koll på läget och vara medveten om vad som händer. Redan då ett komplext system utvecklas får vi en möjlighet att påverka vilken SA en framtida användare av systemet kan komma att få. Det gäller att ta tillvara på detta tillfälle! Ibland uppträder skillnader i SA, beroende på en rad olika orsaker. Denna avhandling handlar om SA och hur man kan använda de skillnaderna vid utveckling av komplexa system. Detta är relevant vid utveckling av en rad olika typer av komplexa system, även om de flesta exempel i denna avhandling kommer från flygdomänen. Avhandlingen innehåller beskrivningar hämtade från litteratur inom området och förslag på utveckling av SA-teori utifrån fokus på just skillnader. Skillnaden mellan vad du behöver vara medveten om och vad du verkligen är medveten om föreslås ge en indikation om individens SA. Vidare föreslås skillnaden mellan vad du är medveten om och vad du tror dig vara medveten om också ge en indikation om individens SA. SA kan skattas för en grupp av människor som arbetar tillsammans, genom variationerna i hur samstämmiga deras uppfattningar är. Termen situationshantering (Eng. Situation Management), (SM), föreslås med en vidare mening än SA, inkluderande SA, men också varje del av perceptionscykeln, hantering av mentala resurser och hantering av situationen genom extern påverkan. SM är en väl lämpad term vid utveckling av komplexa system då fokus här är på situationen och hur den kan hanteras, snarare än fokus på vad en individ eller en grupp uppfattar. Att skatta skillnader i SA och att kunna särskilja olika typer av skillnader är viktiga förutsättningar för att kunna hantera skillnader i SA vid utveckling av komplexa system på ett bra sätt. I avhandlingen gås flera sätt att skatta sådana skillnader igenom och speciellt tas för- och nackdelar med ögonrörelsemätning upp. Med referens till litteraturen och till de bilagda artiklarna beskrivs skillnader i SA beroende på a) designalternativ, b) roller i processen från utveckling till användning c) kontext och d) analysnivå. Skillnaderna i SA föreslås ses som både kvantitativa (dvs. hög eller låg SA) och kvalitativa (tex. olika aspekter av en situation). Ansatser såsom SM, realtidsvärdering, mätning och analys av SA på flera nivåer samtidigt samt simulatorbaserad design föreslås för att hantera skillnader i SA vid utveckling av komplexa system.What’s up, Doc? Situational awareness (SA) is about being aware of what is going on. Already when a complex system is developed there is an opportunity to help a future user of the system to form a better SA. Let us make the best out of this opportunity! When assessing SA, differences in SA will sometimes appear. This dissertation is about SA, and how to manage differences in SA in development of complex systems. This topic is highly valid for development of a variety of complex systems, although most examples in this dissertation are from the aviation domain. Framed by state of the art literature, suggestions are made on theoretical improvements of SA theory, with a focus on differences. The difference between what you are required to be aware of and what you are aware of is suggested as a SA-indicator. Also, the difference between what you are aware of and what you think you are aware of is suggested as another SA-indicator. Further, differences within a team such as variations in degree of agreement could be used for team SA assessment. Also, the term situation management (SM) is suggested, with a proposed wider meaning than SA, including SA and every part of the perception action cycle, the management of mental resources, and external means of managing the situation. SM is a suitable term when developing complex systems due to the focus on the situation and how that could be managed, instead of only focusing on what is perceived by an individual or team. Assessing differences in SA and to differentiate between various types of differences are recognised as important prerequisites to effectively manage differences in SA in development of complex systems. Several assessment techniques are reviewed and especially advantages and disadvantages of the use of eye movements for SA assessment are described. With reference to the literature as well as to the appended papers differences in SA due to a) design alternatives, b) roles in the design-use process, c) context, and d) level of analysis, are described. Differences in SA are suggested to be regarded as both quantitative (i.e. high or low SA) and qualitative (e.g. various aspects of a situation are regarded). Approaches such as, SM, on-line evaluation of SA, simulator based design, as well as measuring and analysing SA on multiple levels simultaneously, are suggested as means to manage differences in SA in the development of complex systems

Functional Mapping as Means for Establishing a Human Factors Research Environment for Future Air Systems

A typical environment for human factors research has equipment and methods for performing a set of experiments such as mental workload assessment, situational awareness evaluation, human resilience measurement and so forth. The common aspect between equipment and methods is that they accomplish a function. The TLX method is part of such an environment because it evaluates the mental workload; an EEG helmet is part of the same research environment because it measures the electrical activity originated by the brain. If the functional structure of a method or equipment is yet to be known, a method for function deployment might be used to this purpose such as FAST. Although cognitive processes in many regards are very different from functions in technical systems, it is possible to describe them in terms of functions for the sake using it for design considerations. For instance, the information-processing paradigm has inspired descriptions that in some regards could be described in functional terms. The multiple resource theory that outlines different mental resources related to various modalities and stages of processing is another example of that. Then a functional mapping engine identifies the equipment and method that address the cognitive functions required for a given experiment. A very simple example of functional mapping is as follows: the cognitive module <vision> has a function X {to track objects}. The equipment *eye tracker* and the method # EPOG – Eye Point of Gaze# have the functions Y [To look at through computer vision] and Z [to track objects]. The mapping among functions X, Y and Z indicate the equipment and method are suitable for addressing the cognitive characteristic under investigation. On the one hand, if an equipment or method do exist, then the functional mapping assist the research environment designer to identify them and help choosing if several options are available. On the other hand, if an equipment or method do not exist, then the functional mapping assist the research environment designer to design and build them. Moving forward from the very simple example to a more practical and realistic situation, the functional mapping can tackle the issues of choosing the necessary functions – from both sides, cognitive and equipment and methods – to meet fidelity requirements of an experiment. This is suggested to be resolved by the cost-benefit trade-off approach detailed as follows. Based on the functional mapping, selective fidelity can be obtained for modeling and simulation considerations. Thereby advantages and disadvantages of the human factors research environment for future air systems could be balanced by the functional mapping, potentially optimizing the use of simulations. System border definition ought to be considered; the border definition practice borrowed from aircraft product/system configuration can be used to this end. Selective fidelity has been applied to transfer of training in military aviation and simulator based design has been shown to be useful for development of air systems. The proposed functional mapping approach could have the potential of adding to this tradition.Design and Comissioning of a Human Factors Laboratory for Aeronautic

Functional Mapping as Means for Establishing a Human Factors Research Environment for Future Air Systems

A typical environment for human factors research has equipment and methods for performing a set of experiments such as mental workload assessment, situational awareness evaluation, human resilience measurement and so forth. The common aspect between equipment and methods is that they accomplish a function. The TLX method is part of such an environment because it evaluates the mental workload; an EEG helmet is part of the same research environment because it measures the electrical activity originated by the brain. If the functional structure of a method or equipment is yet to be known, a method for function deployment might be used to this purpose such as FAST. Although cognitive processes in many regards are very different from functions in technical systems, it is possible to describe them in terms of functions for the sake using it for design considerations. For instance, the information-processing paradigm has inspired descriptions that in some regards could be described in functional terms. The multiple resource theory that outlines different mental resources related to various modalities and stages of processing is another example of that. Then a functional mapping engine identifies the equipment and method that address the cognitive functions required for a given experiment. A very simple example of functional mapping is as follows: the cognitive module <vision> has a function X {to track objects}. The equipment *eye tracker* and the method # EPOG – Eye Point of Gaze# have the functions Y [To look at through computer vision] and Z [to track objects]. The mapping among functions X, Y and Z indicate the equipment and method are suitable for addressing the cognitive characteristic under investigation. On the one hand, if an equipment or method do exist, then the functional mapping assist the research environment designer to identify them and help choosing if several options are available. On the other hand, if an equipment or method do not exist, then the functional mapping assist the research environment designer to design and build them. Moving forward from the very simple example to a more practical and realistic situation, the functional mapping can tackle the issues of choosing the necessary functions – from both sides, cognitive and equipment and methods – to meet fidelity requirements of an experiment. This is suggested to be resolved by the cost-benefit trade-off approach detailed as follows. Based on the functional mapping, selective fidelity can be obtained for modeling and simulation considerations. Thereby advantages and disadvantages of the human factors research environment for future air systems could be balanced by the functional mapping, potentially optimizing the use of simulations. System border definition ought to be considered; the border definition practice borrowed from aircraft product/system configuration can be used to this end. Selective fidelity has been applied to transfer of training in military aviation and simulator based design has been shown to be useful for development of air systems. The proposed functional mapping approach could have the potential of adding to this tradition.Design and Comissioning of a Human Factors Laboratory for Aeronautic

Protease-activated receptors in the Achilles tendon-a potential explanation for the excessive pain signalling in tendinopathy

Background/Aim: Tendinopathies are pathological conditions of tissue remodelling occurring in the major tendons of the body, accompanied by excessive nociceptive signalling. Tendinopathies have been shown to exhibit an increase in the number of mast cells, which are capable of releasing histamine, tryptase and other substances upon activation, which may play a role in the development of tendinopathies. This study set out to describe the distribution patterns of a family of receptors called protease-activated receptors (PARs) within the Achilles tendon. These four receptors (PAR1, PAR2, PAR3, PAR4) are activated by proteases, including tryptase released from mast cells, and are involved in fibrosis, hyperalgesia and neovascularisation, which are changes seen in tendinopathies. Method: In order to study which structures involved in tendinopathy that these proteases can affect, biopsies from patients suffering of mid-portion Achilles tendinosis and healthy controls were collected and examined using immunohistochemistry. Tendon cells were cultured to study in vitro expression patterns. Results: The findings showed a distribution of PARs inside the tendon tissue proper, and in the paratendinous tissue, with all four being expressed on nerves and vascular structures. Double staining showed co-localisation of PARs with nociceptive fibres expressing substance P. Concerning tenocytes, PAR2, PAR3, and PAR4, were found in both biopsies of tendon tissue and cultured tendon cells. Conclusions: This study describes the expression patterns of PARs in the mid-portion of the Achilles tendon, which can help explain the tissue changes and increased pain signalling seen in tendinopathies. These findings also show that in-vitro studies of the effects of these receptors are plausible and that PARs are a possible therapeutic target in the future treatment strategies of tendinopathy

Protease-activated receptors in the Achilles tendon-a potential explanation for the excessive pain signalling in tendinopathy

Background/Aim: Tendinopathies are pathological conditions of tissue remodelling occurring in the major tendons of the body, accompanied by excessive nociceptive signalling. Tendinopathies have been shown to exhibit an increase in the number of mast cells, which are capable of releasing histamine, tryptase and other substances upon activation, which may play a role in the development of tendinopathies. This study set out to describe the distribution patterns of a family of receptors called protease-activated receptors (PARs) within the Achilles tendon. These four receptors (PAR1, PAR2, PAR3, PAR4) are activated by proteases, including tryptase released from mast cells, and are involved in fibrosis, hyperalgesia and neovascularisation, which are changes seen in tendinopathies. Method: In order to study which structures involved in tendinopathy that these proteases can affect, biopsies from patients suffering of mid-portion Achilles tendinosis and healthy controls were collected and examined using immunohistochemistry. Tendon cells were cultured to study in vitro expression patterns. Results: The findings showed a distribution of PARs inside the tendon tissue proper, and in the paratendinous tissue, with all four being expressed on nerves and vascular structures. Double staining showed co-localisation of PARs with nociceptive fibres expressing substance P. Concerning tenocytes, PAR2, PAR3, and PAR4, were found in both biopsies of tendon tissue and cultured tendon cells. Conclusions: This study describes the expression patterns of PARs in the mid-portion of the Achilles tendon, which can help explain the tissue changes and increased pain signalling seen in tendinopathies. These findings also show that in-vitro studies of the effects of these receptors are plausible and that PARs are a possible therapeutic target in the future treatment strategies of tendinopathy

Fighter pilots' teamwork : a descriptive study

The execution of teamwork varies widely depending on the domain and task in question. Despite the considerable diversity of teams and their operation, researchers tend to aim for unified theories and models regardless of field. However, we argue that there is a need for translation and adaptation of the theoretical models to each specific domain. To this end, a case study was carried out on fighter pilots and it was investigated how teamwork is performed in this specialised and challenging environment, with a specific focus on the dependence on technology for these teams. The collaboration between the fighter pilots is described and analysed using a generic theoretical model for effective teamwork from the literature. The results show that domain-specific application and modification is needed in order for the model to capture fighter pilot's teamwork. The study provides deeper understanding of the working conditions for teams of pilots and gives design implications for how tactical support systems can enhance teamwork in the domain. Practitioner summary: This article presents a qualitative interview study with fighter pilots based on a generic theoretical teamwork model applied to the fighter domain. The purpose is to understand the conditions under which teams of fighter pilots work and to provide guidance for the design of future technological aids

Nerve distributions in insertional Achilles tendinopathy - a comparison of bone, bursae and tendon

Background/Aim. In a condition of pain in the Achilles tendon insertion there are multiple structures involved, such as the Achilles tendon itself, the retrocalcaneal bursa and a bony protrusion at the calcaneal tuberosity called Haglund’s deformity. The innervation patterns of these structures are scarcely described, and the subcutaneous calcaneal bursa is traditionally not considered to be involved in the pathology. This study aimed at describing the innervation patterns of the four structures described above to provide a better understanding of possible origins of pain at the Achilles tendon insertion. Methods. Biopsies were taken from 10 patients with insertional Achilles tendinopathy, which had pathological changes in the subcutaneous and retrocalcaneal bursae, a Haglund deformity and Achilles tendon tendinopathy as verified by ultrasound. The biopsies were stained using immunohistochemistry in order to delineate the innervation patterns in the structures involved in insertional Achilles tendinopathy. Results. Immunohistochemical examinations found that the subcutaneous bursa scored the highest using a semi-quantitative evaluation of the degree of innervation when compared to the retrocalcaneal bursa, the Achilles tendon, and the calcaneal bone. Conclusions. These findings suggest that the subcutaneous bursa, which is traditionally not included in surgical treatment, may be a clinically important factor in insertional Achilles tendinopathy