Context-dependent functional divergence of the notch ligands DLL1 and DLL4 In Vivo

Copyright: © 2015 Preuße et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are creditedNotch signalling is a fundamental pathway that shapes the developing embryo and sustains adult tissues by direct communication between ligand and receptor molecules on adjacent cells. Among the ligands are two Delta paralogues, DLL1 and DLL4, that are conserved in mammals and share a similar structure and sequence. They activate the Notch receptor partly in overlapping expression domains where they fulfil redundant functions in some processes (e.g. maintenance of the crypt cell progenitor pool). In other processes, however, they appear to act differently (e.g. maintenance of foetal arterial identity) raising the questions of how similar DLL1 and DLL4 really are and which mechanism causes the apparent context-dependent divergence. By analysing mice that conditionally overexpress DLL1 or DLL4 from the same genomic locus (Hprt) and mice that express DLL4 instead of DLL1 from the endogenous Dll1 locus (Dll1Dll4ki), we found functional differences that are tissue-specific: while DLL1 and DLL4 act redundantly during the maintenance of retinal progenitors, their function varies in the presomitic mesoderm (PSM) where somites form in a Notch-dependent process. In the anterior PSM, every cell expresses both Notch receptors and ligands, and DLL1 is the only activator of Notch while DLL4 is not endogenously expressed. Transgenic DLL4 cannot replace DLL1 during somitogenesis and in heterozygous Dll1Dll4ki/+ mice, the Dll1Dll4ki allele causes a dominant segmentation phenotype. Testing several aspects of the complex Notch signalling system in vitro, we found that both ligands have a similar trans-activation potential but that only DLL4 is an efficient cis-inhibitor of Notch signalling, causing a reduced net activation of Notch. These differential cis-inhibitory properties are likely to contribute to the functional divergence of DLL1 and DLL4.Funding: This work was supported by grant GO 449/13-1 from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (http://www.dfg.de) to AG, by funding of the Cluster of Excellence “From Regenerative Biology to Reconstructive Therapy” to AG (http://www.mh-hannover.de/rebirth.html) and by grant PTDC/SAU-BID/121846/2010 of the Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (http://www.fct.pt/index.phtml.en) to DH.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Homozygous <i>Dll1</i><i>^Dll4ki</i> mice fail to generate proper somites and form reduced skeletal muscle tissue.

<p>Examination of <i>Dll1</i>-dependent (A,B) somitogenesis and (C-F) myogenesis in (a) wildtype, (b) <i>Dll1</i><i>^lacZ/lacZ</i>, (c) <i>Dll1</i><i>^{Dll1ki/Dll1ki}</i>, (d) <i>Dll1</i><i>^Dll4ki/+</i> and (e) <i>Dll1</i><i>^{Dll4ki/Dll4ki}</i> embryos or foetuses. <b>(A)</b><i>Uncx4</i>.<i>1 in situ</i> hybridisation of E9.5 embryos. <b>(B)</b> Skeletal preparations of E18.5 foetuses (<i>Dll1</i><i>^lacZ/lacZ</i> foetuses do not survive until E18.5; red arrowheads indicate fused ribs or hemivertebrae in heterozygous <i>Dll1</i><i>^Dll4ki</i> skeletons in d). <b>(C)</b><i>Myogenin in situ</i> hybridisation to visualise differentiating skeletal muscle cells in myotomes of 17–18 somite stage embryos. <b>(D, E,F)</b> Anti-myosin heavy chain (MHC)-antibody staining of sectioned E15.5 foetuses showing intercostal muscles (D), the diaphragm (E), and muscles in the cross-section of forelimbs (F); black arrowheads indicate examples of muscle tissue, red arrowheads show lack of muscle tissue; asterisks label ribs (D) or bones of the forelimb (F).</p

Effects of varenicline on sympatho-vagal balance and cue reactivity during smoking withdrawal: a randomised placebo-controlled trial

Introduction Varenicline is an effective smoking cessation medication. Some concern has been raised that its use may precipitate adverse cardiovascular events although no patho-physiological mechanism potentially underlying such an effect has been reported. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that varenicline impacts on sympatho-vagal balance during smoking withdrawal. Material and Methods In this randomised, placebo-controlled trial, muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA), baroreflex sensitivity (BRS), heart rate, and blood pressure were assessed in 17 smokers four weeks before a quit attempt (baseline) and again on the third day of that quit attempt (acute smoking withdrawal). Results Regarding the primary endpoint of our study, we did not find a significant effect of varenicline compared to placebo on changes in MSNA burst incidence between baseline and acute smoking withdrawal (−3.0 ± 3.3 vs.−3.9 ± 5.0 bursts/100 heart beats; p = 0.308). However, heart rate and systolic blood pressure significantly decreased in the placebo group only, while no significant changes in these parameters were observed in the varenicline group. Exposure to smoking cues during acute withdrawal lead to a significant increase of heart rate in the placebo group, while heart rate decreased in the varenicline group, and the difference in these changes was significant between groups (+2.7 ± 1.0 vs.−1.8 ± 0.5 1/min; p = 0.002). In all 17 participants combined, a significant increase in heart rate during smoking cue exposure was detected in subjects who relapsed in the course of six weeks after the quit date compared to those who stayed abstinent (+2.5 ± 1.2 vs.−1.1 ± 0.7; p = 0.018). Six-week abstinence rates were higher in the varenicline group compared to placebo (88 vs. 22 % p = 0.015). Conclusions We did not find evidence of adverse effects of varenicline on sympatho-vagal balance. Varenicline probably blunts the heart rate response to smoking cues, which may be linked to improved cessation outcome

Model of Notch signalling in the PSM triggered by DLL1 and ectopic DLL4.

<p>Summary combining our <i>in vivo</i> and <i>in vitro</i> data in three different genetic scenarios (A-C); <i>trans</i>-activation (green arrows) and <i>cis</i>-inhibition (red bars) in cells of the PSM are schematically depicted on the left, representative skeletal preparations to visualise the outcome of somitogenesis are shown on the right; references to Figs. in this paper are given below. <b>(A)</b> In wildtype and <i>Dll1</i><i>^{Dll1ki/Dll1ki}</i> PSMs, endogenous or transgenic DLL1 (D1) <i>trans</i>-activates Notch (N) signalling and results in a regularly segmented axial skeleton. <b>(B)</b> In our <i>in vitro</i> assays, DLL4 (D4) <i>trans</i>-activates Notch with similar efficiency as DLL1 but has an additional strong <i>cis</i>-inhibitory effect on Notch signalling that partially overrides <i>trans</i>-activation. The reduced net Notch activation in <i>Dll1</i><i>^{Dll4ki/Dll4ki}</i> and <i>CAG</i>:<i>Dll4;Dll1</i><i>^loxP/loxP</i><i>;T(s)</i>:<i>Cre</i> PSMs is insufficient to support normal segmentation. <b>(C)</b> When both DLL1 and DLL4 are expressed (<i>Dll1</i>^Dll4ki/+ PSM), <i>cis</i>-inhibition by DLL4 plays a relatively smaller role, the resulting axial skeletons are mostly regular. However, <i>cis</i>-inhibition by DLL4 reduces the robustness of Notch signalling resulting in minor malformations (arrow indicates a misplaced rib), which are consistently seen in <i>Dll1</i><i>^Dll4ki/+</i> skeletons.</p

Generation of <i>Dll1</i>^{<i>Dll4ki</i>} mice that express <i>Dll4</i> instead of <i>Dll1</i> in the endogenous <i>Dll1</i> domains.

<p><b>(A)</b> Targeting strategy to insert a <i>Dll4</i> mini gene into the <i>Dll1</i> locus. The <i>Dll1</i> locus contains 11 exons depicted as black boxes (UTRs as white boxes). The targeting construct is comprised of the <i>Dll4</i> mini gene [<i>Dll4</i> cDNA from start codon (ATG) in exon 1 to exon 9 (large red box), <i>Dll1</i> intron 9, <i>Dll4</i> exon 10 (small red box), <i>Dll1</i> intron 10 and <i>Dll1</i> exon 11 that encodes only the terminal valine conserved between <i>Dll1</i> and <i>Dll4</i> followed by STOP codon and 3‘UTR], a floxed <i>neo</i>^r cassette, homology regions for integration between <i>Dll1</i> start codon and exon 2, and flanking diphtheria toxin genes (DT); insertion of the mini gene is expected to disrupt expression of <i>Dll1</i>. <i>neo</i>^r is removed by Cre-recombination. The resulting <i>Dll1</i><i>^Dll4ki</i> allele and the <i>Dll1</i><i>^Dll1ki</i> control are shown below (blue boxes, <i>Dll1</i> mini gene). <b>(B)</b> Heterozygous adult <i>Dll1</i><i>^Dll4ki</i> mice frequently (89%) displayed a kinky tail (arrow in b) but looked otherwise normal. <b>(C)</b> Heterozygous E15.5 <i>Dll1</i><i>^Dll4ki</i> foetuses (c) were indistinguishable from wildtype (wt; a) and homozygous <i>Dll1</i><i>^Dll1ki</i> (b) foetuses while all homozygous <i>Dll1</i><i>^Dll4ki</i> foetuses (d) displayed shortened body axes and large oedemas. <b>(D)</b><i>Dll1</i> and <i>Dll4</i> expression in <i>Dll1</i><i>^Dll4ki</i> and <i>Dll1</i><i>^Dll1ki</i> embryos visualised by whole mount <i>in situ</i> hybridisation of E9.5 embryos of the indicated genotype with a <i>Dll4</i> ORF, <i>Dll1</i> ex11 (recognises transcripts from both mini genes) and <i>Dll1</i> ORF probe confirmed that <i>Dll4ki</i> alleles expressed <i>Dll4</i> but not <i>Dll1</i> in <i>Dll1</i> expression domains (here the PSM, arrowheads). a-c were stained in parallel and colour development was stopped before endogenous <i>Dll4</i> expression [<a href="http://www.plosgenetics.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pgen.1005328#pgen.1005328.ref049" target="_blank">49</a>] and background became visible. Homozygous <i>Dll1</i><i>^Dll4ki</i> embryos show strong expression in neuroectoderm (white arrow in c; not visible in the weaker staining with <i>Dll1</i> ex11 probe in f). <b>(E)</b> Northern blot analysis of homozygous <i>Dll1</i><i>^Dll4ki</i> and <i>Dll1</i><i>^Dll1ki</i> E11.5 embryos, 2 μg polyA(+)-RNA loaded per lane, hybridised with 3‘UTR (<i>Dll1</i> ex11) and β-actin probes; quantification of transgene signals relative to actin is shown at the bottom and indicates similar expression levels. <b>(F)</b> Visualisation of DLL1 and DLL4 expressed in the PSM of homozygous <i>Dll1</i><i>^Dll4ki</i> (a-f) and <i>Dll1</i><i>^Dll1ki</i> E9.5 embryos (g-l) using specific anti-DLL1 and anti-DLL4 antibodies. Co-staining with anti-panCadherin antibodies, which mark the plasma membrane, confirms that transgenic DLL4 and DLL1 predominantly localise to the cell surface (c,l). The lack of DLL1 signal in <i>Dll1</i><i>^Dll4ki</i> (d) and of DLL4 signal in <i>Dll1</i><i>^Dll1ki</i> PSMs (g) confirm the specificity of stainings. Both in anti-DLL4 and anti-DLL1 antibody stainings of PSMs, we observed spots of high signal intensity that may result from accumulation of ligands at these sites and that had also been observed in wildtype PSMs stained with anti-DLL1 antibodies [<a href="http://www.plosgenetics.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pgen.1005328#pgen.1005328.ref021" target="_blank">21</a>]. Scale bars, 10 μm; insets show magnifications of the dotted boxes in c,l.</p

DLL1 and DLL4 <i>trans</i>-activate Notch with similar efficiency, but only DLL4 is an effective <i>cis</i>-inhibitor.

<p><b>(A)</b> Flag-tagged <i>Dll1</i> and <i>Dll4</i> ORFs were inserted into a randomly integrated <i>attP</i> site in CHO^attP cells mediated by ΦC31 site-directed recombination (upper part). Resulting cells were used in Notch-activation assays in combination with HeLa-N1 cells as schematically shown below (DLL1 depicted as blue bar; DLL4, red; NOTCH1, grey; HeLa-N1 cells are encircled in green). <b>(B)</b> Quantification of DLL1-Flag and DLL4-Flag in two independent CHO^attP-DLL1 (B5, C6) and CHO^attP-DLL4 (B5, D3) cell lines by Western blot analysis of cell lysates with anti-Flag and anti-β-actin (for normalisation) antibodies showed similar protein levels. <b>(C)</b> Surface biotinylation assays demonstrated equal surface representation of DLL1 and DLL4 on CHO^attP cells. <b>(D)</b> Notch <i>trans</i>-activation assays by co-culture of HeLa-N1 cells containing an RBP-Jκ:Luciferase reporter with CHO^attP-DLL1 or CHO^attP-DLL4 cells. All DLL1 and DLL4 clones activated Notch similarly, DLL4 being a slightly more efficient activator (compare with similar experiment in <a href="http://www.plosgenetics.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pgen.1005328#pgen.1005328.s006" target="_blank">S6A and S6G Fig</a>). <b>(E)</b> Notch <i>trans</i>-activation and <i>cis</i>-inhibition assays by culturing HeLa-N1 cells untransfected or transiently transfected with <i>Dll1</i> or <i>Dll4</i> expression constructs with or without CHO^attP or CHO^attP-DLL1 cells as indicated (a-c). Co-culture conditions a, b and c correspond to Luciferase measurements a’, b’ and c’, respectively. Results show <i>cis</i>-inhibition by DLL4 but not DLL1; for details see main text. <b>(F)</b><i>trans</i>-Activation assays (a) without and (b) with NOTCH1 receptor expression in the signal sending CHO cell to test if NOTCH1 <i>cis</i>-inhibits the ligand activity of DLL1 or DLL4. No <i>cis</i>-inhibitory effect on either ligand was observed (columns a‘ and b‘ correspond to assay conditions a and b, respectively). <b>(G)</b><i>trans</i>-Activation and <i>cis</i>-inhibition assays using chimeric DLL1-DLL4 proteins (G top; depicted as red and blue striped bars in a-c). HeLa-N1 cells were transiently transfected with no or DLL4-DLL1ECD or DLL1-DLL4ECD expression constructs and cultured as indicated (a-c). Under all three conditions, a strong <i>cis</i>-inhibitory activity was detected only for DLL1-DLL4ECD (columns a‘, b’ and c‘ correspond to schemas a, b and c, respectively). Error bars represent SEM; ns, not significant; *, P<0.05; **, P<0.01; ***, P<0.001; ****, P<0.0001.</p