From dangerous citizens to foreign criminals: effects on human rights and state sovereignty of recent international and European responses to the terrorist threat

The so-called “terrorist diaspora” of Foreign Terrorist Fighters (FTFs) to their countries of residence after the defeat of Daesh is a primary concern not only for European countries, but also for the international community as a whole. Some studies have been focused on the causes of this phenomenon and its effects. However, less attention has been paid to the effects of counter-terrorism measures. Since Resolution 1373, the United Nations Security Council has been developing a binding global framework against terrorism, and Resolution 2178 is the icing on this cake. This framework, accepted by many regional organizations such as the European Union and the Council of Europe, forces States to adopt measures against FTFs in areas of criminal, administrative and civil law. Firstly, these measures affect individuals because of the restrictions imposed on certain fundamental rights, such as privacy or freedom of movement. Secondly, a radical interpretation of these measures followed by its unilateral adoption can cause anarchy in the international relations between the States of origin of FTFs and the States of destination. For instance, measures preventing the movement of terrorists can be translated into the expulsion of residents or nationality deprivation, driving them to countries with less capabilities to deal with this risk. A strategy which, at the end, will increase instability in a globalised world. For these reasons, this paper proposes that the global and European frameworks against FTFs should be used as a tool to coordinate efforts, and not as a justification to defend short-term national security interests to the detriment of long-term international security.La denominada «diáspora» de combatientes terroristas extranjeros (CTE) a sus países de residencia tras la derrota del Daesh es una preocupación no sólo para los Estados europeos, sino también para la comunidad internacional en su conjunto. Varios estudios se han centrado en las causas de este fenómeno y sus efectos. Sin embargo, menos atención se ha prestado a los efectos de las medidas antiterroristas adoptadas. Desde la Resolución 1373, el Consejo de Seguridad de Naciones Unidas ha desarrollado un marco global de lucha contra el terrorismo, y la Resolución 2178 es la guinda de este papel. Este marco, aceptado por múltiples organizaciones regionales como la Unión Europea y el Consejo de Europa, obliga a los Estados a adoptar diversas medidas contra los CTE en materia de derecho penal, administrativo y civil. En primer lugar, estas medidas afectan a los individuos ya que imponen restricciones en ciertos derechos fundamentales, tales como el derecho a la libertad o a la libre circulación. En segundo lugar, una interpretación radical de estas medidas seguidas de una adopción unilateral puede causar la anarquía en las relaciones internacionales entre los Estados de origen de los CTE y los Estados de destino. Por ejemplo, las medidas que buscan prevenir la circulación de terroristas pueden traducirse en la expulsión de residentes o en la revocación de su nacionalidad, guiándolos hacia países con menos capacidades para lidiar con este riesgo. Una estrategia que, al final, incrementará la inestabilidad en un mundo globalizado. Por estas razones, este estudio propone que el marco global y europeo contra los CTE debe ser utilizado como una herramienta para coordinar esfuerzos, y no como una justificación para defender intereses de seguridad nacional a corto plazo en detrimento de la seguridad internacional a largo plazo

The EU Directive in combating terrorism and the criminalization of travelling: ajustified exception to the free movement of persons?

Over the past few years, the phenomenon of foreign terrorist fighters has deeply influenced criminal law. The United Nations, the Council of Europe and the European Union have called upon States to criminalise certain conducts linked to the behaviour of these criminals, such as travelling abroad for terrorist purposes. These measures have been considered by many as an unjustified restriction on the free movement of persons guaranteed by several human rights instruments. Taking into account that the development of EU criminal law is based on the assumption that every member State has an adequate system of protection of fundamental rights, this criticism cannot be ignored. In this sense, an analysis of relevant case law on the restrictions of freedom of movement is highly useful to understand the position of the judiciary on the matter, and to identify possible difficulties in implementing these restrictions of free movement in national systems.UNIVERSIDAD DE GANTEUniversidad de Málaga. Campus de Excelencia Internacional Andalucía Tech

Primordial dark energy from a condensate of spinors in a 5D vacuum

We explore the possibility that the expansion of the universe can be driven by a condensate of spinors which are free of interactions on a 5D relativistic vacuum defined on an extended de Sitter spacetime which is Riemann-flat. The extra coordinate is considered as noncompact. After making a static foliation on the extra coordinate, we obtain an effective 4D (inflationary) de Sitter expansion which describes an inflationary universe. We found that the condensate of spinors here studied could be an interesting candidate to explain the presence of dark energy in the early universe. The dark energy density which we are talking about is poured into smaller sub-horizon scales with the evolution of the inflationary expansion.Comment: Accepted in Advances in High Energy Physic

Vibrational and optical properties of MoS2_2: from monolayer to bulk

Molybdenum disulfide, MoS2, has recently gained considerable attention as a layered material where neighboring layers are only weakly interacting and can easily slide against each other. Therefore, mechanical exfoliation allows the fabrication of single and multi-layers and opens the possibility to generate atomically thin crystals with outstanding properties. In contrast to graphene, it has an optical gap of 1.9 eV. This makes it a prominent candidate for transistor and opto-electronic applications. Single-layer MoS$_2$ exhibits remarkably different physical properties compared to bulk MoS$_2$ due to the absence of interlayer hybridization. For instance, while the band gap of bulk and multi-layer MoS$_2$ is indirect, it becomes direct with decreasing number of layers. In this review, we analyze from a theoretical point of view the electronic, optical, and vibrational properties of single-layer, few-layer and bulk MoS$_2$. In particular, we focus on the effects of spin-orbit interaction, number of layers, and applied tensile strain on the vibrational and optical properties. We examine the results obtained by different methodologies, mainly ab initio approaches. We also discuss which approximations are suitable for MoS$_2$ and layered materials. The effect of external strain on the band gap of single-layer MoS$_2$ and the crossover from indirect to direct band gap is investigated. We analyze the excitonic effects on the absorption spectra. The main features, such as the double peak at the absorption threshold and the high-energy exciton are presented. Furthermore, we report on the phonon dispersion relations of single-layer, few-layer and bulk MoS$_2$. Based on the latter, we explain the behavior of the Raman-active $A_{1g}$ and $E^1_{2g}$ modes as a function of the number of layers