Temporary Clusters and Knowledge Creation: The Case of Tourism@

With respect to the knowledge-based-view and management science, innovations contribute to a company's competitiveness. And for successful innovation process, companies need to share, create and combine their internal knowledge as well as managing their external relationships and opportunities. Consequently, it is widely accepted that clusters - systemic and local configurations - by supporting horizontal and vertical knowledge exchange could be a fundamental mean for innovation. However, the prolific literature on clusters analyse them only as durable and permanent entities. Yet, interestingly, some forms of temporary organizations as trade fairs, conventions and other professional gatherings, are similar to permanent clusters, but in a temporary, repeated and intensified form. Maskell, Bathelt and Malmberg (2004) even call them “temporary cluster” using the concept to define a short-lived hotspot of intense knowledge exchange, network building and idea generation. It gathers heterogeneous participants in the same spot enabling them to bring together their specific knowledge through intensive interactions. Nevertheless, to date, we observed that the literature focusing on temporary clusters is limited. Notwithstanding, it requires growing attention for management science. In fact, the literature existing on temporary clusters, had asserted that these transient events are important for companies to access markets and knowledge pools in different part of the world. Therefore we consider temporary clusters as a significant vector for the building of trans-local business relations in common situations of incomplete knowledge and uncertainty. Besides, temporary clusters help developing global knowledge pipelines to benefit from outside knowledge.In this context, the paper will analyze a specific empirical case of temporary organization related to the tourism industry. Two arguments support this choice. On the one hand, as stated by Maskell et al. (2005), ‘identifying, selecting, approaching and interacting with new partners is a tricky and costly process' and, we think, even more in the tourism industry. Indeed, the tourism industry is structured by dispersed activities in nature, time and space that need to be combined and assembled dynamically. On the other hand, the tourism industry has been one of the most innovative activities related to the development of ICT, almost 50% of the innovations in the e-commerce activity come from e-tourism or m-tourism. Therefore, the analysis of a temporary cluster dedicated to this ‘dispersed' activity is particularly relevant.The paper will thus focus on such an event called Tourism@. This major event gathers the main actors of e-tourism and is dedicated to the usages of ICT in the tourism industry. It appears as a unique international trade fair in Europe dedicated to start up innovative companies, high tech SMEs, academic research, as well as large multinationals. Tourism@' specificity lies in the fact that each year, since 2001, the event includes the organization of a competition rewarding projects for their creativity and commitment in developing and implementing either new technologies or new uses for the tourism industry. The projects involved in this competition (175 since 2001) will be the basic elements of the temporal database we have build, in which the nature of the projects is extensively described (nature of the firm, of the technology, of the team, capabilities implemented, level of innovation...). In order to analyze the evolution of innovative activities in e-tourism, the initial step will be to characterize the projects through three main features: the market they address, nature of the technology and their innovative intensity. The study reveals that, each year, a main technology or a main innovation in terms of uses emerges showing some kind of self organization. Then, two points of the case study will be examined: first, the evolution of the dominant technology over time, and secondly, the diffusion of the emerging technology. Therefrom, the empirical study will aim at analyzing if temporary proximity allows the different actors from tourism industry to set up or mobilize knowledge and social links without requiring durable co-location. Furthermore, it will aim at identifying if, in a dynamic context of annual event, the repeated face to face temporary relations can result in trust and durable cooperation between different organizations. It might be expected that Tourism@ trade fair, in the role of a temporary cluster, enables to develop or implement innovative solutions, supports technology transfers and backs the creation of new markets as well as the fostering of horizontal and vertical relations between stakeholders.The paper is structured as follows. First section will investigate the theory field of temporary clusters and question in what extent a temporary cluster can be considered as a specific temporary organization regarding the interactions it support that lead to knowledge creation. Section two will present the Tourism@ case study; the methodology used and will develop the statistical analysis of the database. Lastly, the third section will be dedicated to the discussion of temporary clusters as a specific form of inter-firm organization that allows intensive exchange of knowledge.Knowledge creation; Temporary cluster; Tourism; Technological innovation

Temporary Clusters and Knowledge Creation: The Case of Tourism@

International audienceWith respect to the knowledge-based-view and management science, innovations contribute to a company's competitiveness. And for successful innovation process, companies need to share, create and combine their internal knowledge as well as managing their external relationships and opportunities. Consequently, it is widely accepted that clusters - systemic and local configurations - by supporting horizontal and vertical knowledge exchange could be a fundamental mean for innovation. <br />However, the prolific literature on clusters analyse them only as durable and permanent entities. Yet, interestingly, some forms of temporary organizations as trade fairs, conventions and other professional gatherings, are similar to permanent clusters, but in a temporary, repeated and intensified form. Maskell, Bathelt and Malmberg (2004) even call them “temporary cluster” using the concept to define a short-lived hotspot of intense knowledge exchange, network building and idea generation. It gathers heterogeneous participants in the same spot enabling them to bring together their specific knowledge through intensive interactions. <br />Nevertheless, to date, we observed that the literature focusing on temporary clusters is limited. Notwithstanding, it requires growing attention for management science. In fact, the literature existing on temporary clusters, had asserted that these transient events are important for companies to access markets and knowledge pools in different part of the world. Therefore we consider temporary clusters as a significant vector for the building of trans-local business relations in common situations of incomplete knowledge and uncertainty. Besides, temporary clusters help developing global knowledge pipelines to benefit from outside knowledge.<br /><br />In this context, the paper will analyze a specific empirical case of temporary organization related to the tourism industry. Two arguments support this choice. On the one hand, as stated by Maskell et al. (2005), ‘identifying, selecting, approaching and interacting with new partners is a tricky and costly process' and, we think, even more in the tourism industry. Indeed, the tourism industry is structured by dispersed activities in nature, time and space that need to be combined and assembled dynamically. On the other hand, the tourism industry has been one of the most innovative activities related to the development of ICT, almost 50% of the innovations in the e-commerce activity come from e-tourism or m-tourism. <br />Therefore, the analysis of a temporary cluster dedicated to this ‘dispersed' activity is particularly relevant.<br />The paper will thus focus on such an event called Tourism@. This major event gathers the main actors of e-tourism and is dedicated to the usages of ICT in the tourism industry. It appears as a unique international trade fair in Europe dedicated to start up innovative companies, high tech SMEs, academic research, as well as large multinationals. Tourism@' specificity lies in the fact that each year, since 2001, the event includes the organization of a competition rewarding projects for their creativity and commitment in developing and implementing either new technologies or new uses for the tourism industry. <br />The projects involved in this competition (175 since 2001) will be the basic elements of the temporal database we have build, in which the nature of the projects is extensively described (nature of the firm, of the technology, of the team, capabilities implemented, level of innovation...). In order to analyze the evolution of innovative activities in e-tourism, the initial step will be to characterize the projects through three main features: the market they address, nature of the technology and their innovative intensity. The study reveals that, each year, a main technology or a main innovation in terms of uses emerges showing some kind of self organization. Then, two points of the case study will be examined: first, the evolution of the dominant technology over time, and secondly, the diffusion of the emerging technology. <br />Therefrom, the empirical study will aim at analyzing if temporary proximity allows the different actors from tourism industry to set up or mobilize knowledge and social links without requiring durable co-location. Furthermore, it will aim at identifying if, in a dynamic context of annual event, the repeated face to face temporary relations can result in trust and durable cooperation between different organizations. It might be expected that Tourism@ trade fair, in the role of a temporary cluster, enables to develop or implement innovative solutions, supports technology transfers and backs the creation of new markets as well as the fostering of horizontal and vertical relations between stakeholders.<br /><br />The paper is structured as follows. First section will investigate the theory field of temporary clusters and question in what extent a temporary cluster can be considered as a specific temporary organization regarding the interactions it support that lead to knowledge creation. Section two will present the Tourism@ case study; the methodology used and will develop the statistical analysis of the database. Lastly, the third section will be dedicated to the discussion of temporary clusters as a specific form of inter-firm organization that allows intensive exchange of knowledge

Technologies de l'information et de la communication : un outil stratégique pour les petites et moyennes entreprises touristiques?

L'entreprise de petite taille est souvent considérée comme une entreprise qui subit les aléas de son environnement. Face à cette perspective qualifiée de déterministe, certains travaux récents (Gueguen, 2004) ont mis en évidence la possibilité pour les PME (Petites et Moyennes Entreprises) de disposer d'une liberté d'action réelle. Le développement depuis une dizaine d'année de technologies de l'information et de la communication offre aux entreprises la possibilité de renforcer leurs positions concurrentielles et de développer des stratégies. Si ces aspects ont été décrits dans de nombreux travaux concernant la grande entreprise, on dispose de peu de recul sur les impacts des systèmes d'information et de communication sur le management stratégique des PME. Il semble donc opportun de revenir sur le rôle des TIC au sein des petites structures et de se demander : dans quelle mesure les technologies de diffusion de l'information constituent-elles un outil stratégique pour ces entreprises. Les récentes recherches menées sur la relation entre les petites entreprises et leur environnement nous apprennent que les PME peuvent faire preuve de volontarisme. Partant de cette idée, cet article vise à comprendre en quoi les TIC peuvent être une ressource spécifique permettant à ces entreprises de se singulariser. Les résultats de recherche dont on rend compte ici s'intéressent à l'influence des TIC sur la stratégie des PME. La capacité à déployer des stratégies grâce aux TIC, est expliquée à travers les contextes spécifiques des PME, que l'on précise.TIC (technologies de l'information et de la communication) – décisions stratégiques – PME (petites et moyennes entreprises) – environnement

Research on chilean saltpetre heritage (19th and 20th centuries) and its enhancement

Vers 1870, le salpêtre succédera au guano comme engrais naturel dans les pays développés. La victoire du Chili dans la Guerre du Pacifique, permettra l’annexion des territoires salpêtriers. Le monopole sur la ressource ouvrira une période de grande prospérité pour le pays. Cependant, l’ampleur des investissements nécessaires rendra indispensable l’arrivée de capitaux étrangers, principalement britanniques. Jusqu’à 1930, ces derniers maintiendront une position hégémonique dans cette industrie. Ils l’abandonneront alors au profit d’intérêts nord-américains dotés d’une technologie supérieure. Née dans une région désertique, cette industrie a drainé une population importante, tant d’origine proche qu’européenne, tant sur les lieux de production que dans les ports. Plusieurs villes côtières ont ainsi été créées, permettant la naissance d’une nouvelle bourgeoisie. Le regroupement de nombreux ouvriers, travaillant dans un environnement difficile, a permis la naissance de mouvements sociaux, finalement transformés en mouvement politiques. Ainsi, le Parti Socialiste chilien trouve son origine dans les mouvements ouvriers du salpêtre. Le caractère unique de ce patrimoine et son rôle essentiel dans la construction du Chili a valu aux sites de Humberstone et Santa Laura d’être inscrits au Patrimoine Mondial de l’Humanité. Ceux-ci permettent de comprendre tant les procédés industriels que le mode de vie des “pampinos”. Cependant, la difficile reconnaissance de la valeur culturelle de ce patrimoine et la nécessité de préserver autant les manifestations immatérielles que matérielles de cet héritage amènent à s’interroger sur la transmission d’une mémoire en sursis; ABSTRACT: Research on Chilean saltpetre Heritage (19th and 20th Centuries) and its enhancement Around 1870, saltpetre replaced guano as a natural fertilizer in developed countries. The victory of Chile in the Pacific War resulted in the annexation of territories rich in saltpetre. The monopoly on the resource brought a period of great prosperity for the country. However, due to the extent of the investments, the arrival of foreign capital, mainly British, was needed. Until 1930, British interests maintain a hegemonic position in this industry. They then were replaced by US interests disposing of a superior technology. Born in a desert region, the industry has attracted a large population, from nearby or European origins, either in production sites or in ports. Several coastal towns were created, allowing the birth of a new bourgeoisie. The grouping of many workers, working in a difficult environment, enabled the birth of social movements, eventually turned into political movement. Thus, the Chilean Socialist Party has its roots in the saltpetre labour movement. The uniqueness of this heritage and its essential role in the construction of Chile has earned the sites of “oficinas” Humberstone and Santa Laura to be listed as World Heritage Site. Both help understand the industrial processes and the lifestyle of "pampinos". However, the difficult recognition of the cultural value of this heritage and the need to preserve as much immaterial and material manifestations of it raise questions about the transmission of a memory in jeopardy

Free energy and molecular dynamics calculations for the cubic-tetragonal phase transition in zirconia

The high-temperature cubic-tetragonal phase transition of pure stoichiometric zirconia is studied by molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and within the framework of the Landau theory of phase transformations. The interatomic forces are calculated using an empirical, self-consistent, orthogonal tight-binding (SC-TB) model, which includes atomic polarizabilities up to the quadrupolar level. A first set of standard MD calculations shows that, on increasing temperature, one particular vibrational frequency softens. The temperature evolution of the free energy surfaces around the phase transition is then studied with a second set of calculations. These combine the thermodynamic integration technique with constrained MD simulations. The results seem to support the thesis of a second-order phase transition but with unusual, very anharmonic behaviour above the transition temperature

Dynamique organisationnelle du secteur touristique : évolutions technologiques et innovations de services

Le secteur du tourisme a connu ces dernières années de profondes transformations. Celles-ci sont visibles pour l'essentiel dans le passage d'un paradigme industriel à un paradigme de la "connaissance". En effet, "l'ancien tourisme" se caractérise essentiellement par une production de masse, standardisée, alors que le "nouveau tourisme" vise, par l'innovation, à offrir des biens différenciés et personnalisés aux différentes niches de marchés. Ces transformations ont évolué conjointement aux changements de comportements et de motivations des consommateurs, dans un nouvel environnement juridico économique. Ces facteurs ont ainsi contribué à l'émergence de nouvelles règles concurrentielles dans une économie mondialisée. C'est surtout l'arrivée des technologies de l'information et de la communication (TIC ), qui a le plus bouleversé l'industrie du tourisme ces dix dernières années. Ces évolutions concernent l'ensemble du processus productif du produit touristique, mais également tous les prestataires du tourisme. Les entreprises contraintes de s'adapter à l'ensemble de ces évolutions doivent repenser la segmentation traditionnelle de leurs activités. Cette contribution a pour objectif de mieux comprendre la relation entre les changements structurels que connaissent les entreprises du tourisme et l'organisation du secteur touristique. L'analyse de ce processus implique de comprendre dans un premier temps de quelle manière se structure le tourisme. L'existence d'une forte interdépendance entre les diverses entreprises qui effectuent des activités complémentaires très variées amènera à conclure qu'il s'agit d'une industrie au sens de Richardson (1972). En effet, chacune de ces entreprises effectue une étape du processus productif. Par conséquent, toute innovation à l'un des stades de la production aura de fortes implications sur les autres et donc sur l'ensemble du secteur. Nous montrerons dans un second temps que l'émergence d'innovations dépend fortement de l'interaction et de la complémentarité entre la technologie et l'organisation interne de l'entreprise (Milgrom et Roberts, 1990). L'évolution de l'industrie est donc fortement dépendante de la capacité des entreprises à internaliser les différents progrès technologiques.Industrie du tourisme ; changements technologiques; dynamique organisationnelle; innovations de services

Deux approches pédagogiques dans la prévention du paludisme par le pharmacien d'officine

Les voyageurs se rendant dans certains pays ou régions du monde ont un risque de développer le paludisme. Il s agit d une maladie infectieuse à transmission vectorielle causée par un parasite appartenant au genre Plasmodium. Le paludisme est une maladie grave, parfois mortelle, très répandue dans les pays tropicaux et subtropicaux. Le pharmacien d officine a un rôle central et primordial dans le conseil aux voyageurs et dans la prévention de l'infestation. L information donnée doit être fiable, complète et actualisée. Pour fournir les informations aux pharmaciens mais aussi aux étudiants de la nouvelle génération Y, deux approches pédagogiques seront utilisées dans cette thèse. L une traditionnelle, l autre plus adaptée aux attentes et aux habitudes de la nouvelle génération appelée : approche par étude de cas.People who travel in specific countries or areas can be exposed and can develop malaria. It is a mosquito-borne infectious disease caused by parasitic protozoans of the genus Plasmodium. Malaria is a serious and sometimes fatal disease which is widespread in many tropical and subtropical countries. The pharmacist has a central role in the prevention of the disease by giving advices to traverlers. The information must be reliable, complete and up-to-date. The thesis will be developped into two pedagogical approaches to give the right information to the pharmacists and also to Y generation students. The first one is a traditional synthesis work. The second is a new methode : a study case, that fits more with student s expectations and habits.GRENOBLE1-BU Médecine pharm. (385162101) / SudocSudocFranceF

Predictive habitat suitability models to aid conservation of elasmobranch diversity in the central Mediterranean Sea

Commercial fisheries have dramatically impacted elasmobranch populations worldwide. With high capture and bycatch rates, the abundance of many species is rapidly declining and around a quarter of the world’s sharks and rays are threatened with extinction. At a regional scale this negative trend has also been evidenced in the central Mediterranean Sea, where bottom-trawl fisheries have affected the biomass of certain rays (e.g. Raja clavata) and sharks (e.g. Mustelus spp.). Detailed knowledge of elasmobranch habitat requirements is essential for biodiversity conservation and fisheries management, but this is often hampered by a poor understanding of their spatial ecology. Habitat suitability models were used to investigate the habitat preference of nine elasmobranch species and their overall diversity (number of species) in relation to five environmental predictors (i.e. depth, sea surface temperature, surface salinity, slope and rugosity) in the central Mediterranean Sea. Results showed that depth, seafloor morphology and sea surface temperature were the main drivers for elasmobranch habitat suitability. Predictive distribution maps revealed different species-specific patterns of suitable habitat while high assemblage diversity was predicted in deeper offshore waters (400–800 m depth). This study helps to identify priority conservation areas and diversity hot-spots for rare and endangered elasmobranchs in the Mediterranean Sea