Cesspits as Onsite Sanitation Facilities in the Non-Sewered Palestinian Rural Areas: Users’ Satisfaction, Needs and Perception.

The main aim of this research was to assess the problems of using cesspits in the non-sewered areas in the West Bank of Palestine by the means of a questionnaire, with a sample size of 485 households, targeting the cesspits’ owners. People who use cesspits for house onsite wastewater management are not satisfied with them, and most of them complain about high disturbance during discharge of the cesspits (75.5%). Emptying cesspits represents a financial burden, costing 6% of the households’ monthly income. The frequency of cesspits’ emptying decreases substantially when there are onsite GWTPs. People accept that constructing a house with an onsite GWTPs when supported by external funding, and to a much lesser extent when they need to fund them themselves. The majority of people prefer sewerage networks for wastewater management(74.8%), followed by onsite GWTPs (15.5%), and cesspits are the least preferable (9.5%). Therefore, a more technically sound individual home onsite wastewater management system should be applied to replace cesspits so as to solve their negative implications on the socio-economic, environmental, and health aspects in the Palestinian rural communities

Reasons of Acceptance and Barriers of House Onsite Greywater Treatment and Reuse in Palestinian Rural Areas

© 2020 by the authors. In the last twenty years, house onsite wastewater management systems have been increasing in the West Bank\u27s rural areas. The aim of this research was to reveal, in the context of providing onsite GreyWater Treatment Plants (GWTPs) for wastewater management in the rural communities in Palestine, the local population\u27s perceptions, in the sense of acceptance of and barriers towards such a type of wastewater management, so as to figure out successes, failures and lessons. The data collection tool was a questionnaire that targeted the households served with GWTPs. The findings show that 13% of the total constructed treatment plants were not operative. The most important barrier as mentioned by 66.5% is odor emission and insect infestation. Then, 25.1% of the implementing agencies never monitor or check the treatment plants, and 59.3% of them monitor and check the plants only during the first 2-3 months. The next barrier is inadequate beneficiary experience in operation and maintenance. Health concerns regarding quality of crops irrigated by treated grey water were another barrier. The results revealed that the reuse of treated grey water in irrigation was the main incentive for GWTPs as stated by 88.0% of beneficiaries. The second incentive was the saving of cesspit discharge frequency and its financial consequences, as stated by 71.3%. Finally, 72.5% of the beneficiaries stated that they had a water shortage before implementing GWTPs, and the GWTPs contributed to solving it. The highest percentage (82.6%) of beneficiaries accepted the treatment units because of their willingness to reuse treated water for irrigation and agricultural purposes. Education level has an impact on GWTP acceptance, with 73% of not educated beneficiaries being satisfied and 58.8% of educated people being satisfied. Islamic religion is considered a driver for accepting reuse of treated grey water in irrigation, according to the majority of people (70%). Women play a major role on GWTP management; 68.9% of the treatment systems are run by men side-by-side with women (fathers and mothers), and 24% are run completely by women. The majority of GWTP beneficiaries (70.4%) are satisfied with GWTPs. Little effort is required for operation and maintenance, with only an average of 0.4 working hours per week. Therefore, house onsite grey water management systems are acceptable in rural communities, but attention should be given to the reasons of acceptance and barriers highlighted in this research

Heavy metals in harvested rainwater used for domestic purposes in rural areas: Yatta Area, Palestine as a case study.

Rainwater harvesting is considered one of the most important water resources in the Palestinian countryside. In this research, the study area chosen for the study was Yatta town in Hebron city. 75 water samples were collected from 74 cisterns in a number of neighborhoods in Yatta, and a structured household survey was conducted with the same households where the water samples were collected. Statistical analysis was made using the SPSS software. An analysis for the samples was made using ICP-MS to test the existence of a number of heavy metals, namely Pb, Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn and Cd. The results were compared with the WHO and Palestinian limits for drinking water quality. Considering the metals Mn, Co, Cu and Cd, neither of the samples exceeded any of the two limits. For the metals, Pb, Cr, and Ni, two samples exceeded both limits. For the metal, Zn, one sample exceeded the WHO limit only. Sources of pollution by heavy metals of the harvested rainwater were identified by means of a questionnaire distributed to the households. The results showed that except for nickel and the water collection surface of the cistern factor, there is no direct relationship between the factors and activities that may contribute to contaminate harvested rainwater with heavy metals and the existence of heavy metals beyond local and international limits. Based on the questionnaire and literature: Possible sources of lead and zinc are the roof, storage tanks, distribution systems and plumbing; possible sources of chromium are road dust, asbestos brakes and anthropogenic activities occurring around the house; possible source of nickel is leaching from metals in contact with harvested rainwater such as pipes and fittings which are used to collect the harvested rainwater. In addition, an assessment of the potential health risks due to contamination of the harvested rainwater by heavy metals was made for all the samples that exceeded either WHO limit or the Palestinian limit or both. The Chronic Daily Intake (CDI) and the Health Risk Index (HRI) were calculated. The assessment was made for both adults and children. The results showed that all the samples are considered safe (HRI \u3c 1), which means that there are no potential health risks for consumers

Occupational Safety and Health Practices among Farmers in Wadi Al Far'a Area, Palestine

Background: Agriculture is considered a vital sector and it is ranked as the fourth cause for occupational non- fatal injury in the Palestinian society. Methods: A quantitative study in Wadi Al Far’a area was implemented in 2017. Four hundred farmers were interviewed and completed a questionnaire. The researcher requested information about the farmers and their work, along with a description of the injury and its seriousness and whether they were injured during the past twelve months. Moreover, information regarding farmer awareness about the preventive measures was taken. A descriptive analysis, χ2 testing and binary logistic regression were conducted using SPSS (version 20). Results: The analysis showed that 71% of the interviewed farmers were injured, of which 51% of the injuries were concentrated in the hands of the farmers, while 36% of the farmers were injured by stab wounds from sharp objects, and 45% of the accidents were caused by hand equipments. The analysis also showed that 4.2% of the farmers reported that the injuries were serious and needed hospital treatment, while 47.6% needed a rest for a day or less and 2% were left with long-term injuries accompanied by medical certificates. Fewer injuries were found among farmers who attended an occupational safety course and who wore protective uniforms. The binary regression results revealed that farmers coming from big families, who own the farms and work as full time farmers in big fields, were at a higher risk to become injured. While elderly farmers were at a lower risk to be injured. Conclusion: Strengthening the National Committee for Occupational Safety combined with safety education; through the use of safety equipment and the improvement of preventive measures that are needed to improve occupational safety for farmers at the Palestinian level

Water Quality Engineering and Wastewater Treatment II

In this respect, the modeling of the organic matter removal kinetics from municipal sewerage in horizontal subsurface flow CWs was carried out using a conventional first-order model and sigmoidal k-n model [[12]]. Water is an essential natural compound on earth; all life forms on our planet need water to function properly. The presented water management research in this Special Issue aimed to assess natural water quality in different areas, i.e., Brazil, Palestine, and China. [Extracted from the article

Health Risk Associated with Some Trace and Some Heavy Metals Content of Harvested Rainwater in Yatta Area, Palestine

Rainwater is considered a dependable source for domestic purposes within rural areas in Palestine. Harvested rainwater stored in cisterns is used to leverage deficits from municipal water supplies. Harvested rainwater in areas surrounded with industrial and agricultural activities is usually contaminated with heavy and trace metals. To study the effects of human exposure to heavy and trace metals, 74 harvested rainwater samples of rain-fed cisterns were collected from different localities in the Yatta area of Palestine in the months of January and February of 2016. The water samples were analysed for Ca, Mg, Al, Fe, K, Na, Ag, Li, Co, Ba, Bi, Sr, Ga, V, Rb, Mo, Beand Tl elements utilizing ICP-MS (inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry). The selected trace metals were found within the concentration limits of the acceptable values, in accordance with WHO and Palestinian standards, except for K and Al, which were found above the allowed limits. The potential risks of the selected trace metals on the health of the local residents, as well as the possible sources of such heavy metals, were also studied. The Chronic daily intake (CDI) of each metal and health risk indexes (HRI) were calculated for both adults and children residents. The oral ingestion pathway was studied, including exposure via drinking water. The values for CDI were found in the descending order of: Ca > Mg > Na > K > Sr > Fe > Al > Ba > Li > V > Rb > Ag > Mo > Ga > Co > Bi > TI > Be. The values of HRI were below 1 for most of the selected heavy metals, expect for Li for children, indicating potential health risk. The study also predicted that the local residents have a higher chance of developing cancer in their lifetime, especially children, with respect to the carcinogenic risk (CRing) values for Na, Mg, Al, Ba, K, Ca, Fe and Sr, which were greater than standardized limits (>106). The rest of the selected elements were within the acceptable limit in the five different studied locations. Furthermore, univariate, multivariate and statistical analysis depending on one-way ANOVA, inter-metal correlation, cluster analysis (CA) and principal component analysis (PCA) results revealed that geogenic and anthropogenic activities were major sources of drinking water contamination by heavy metals in the Yatta area.The authors would like to thank Yatta municipality for helping in samples collection, the households that facilitated our sampling, and Al-Quds University where water samples were analysed

A System Dynamics Approach for Hospital Waste Management in a City in a Developing Country: The Case of Nablus, Palestine

Hospitals and health centers provide a variety of healthcare services and normally generate hazardous waste as well as general waste. General waste has a similar nature to that of municipal solid waste and therefore could be disposed of in municipal landfills. However, hazardous waste poses risks to public health, unless it is properly managed. The hospital waste management system encompasses many factors, i.e., number of beds, number of employees, level of service, population, birth rate, fertility rate, and not in my back yard (NIMBY) syndrome. Therefore, this management system requires a comprehensive analysis to determine the role of each factor and its influence on the whole system. In this research, a hospital waste management simulation model is presented based on the system dynamics technique to determine the interaction among these factors in the system using a software package, ithink. This model is used to estimate waste segregation as this is important in the hospital waste management system to minimize risk to public health. Real data has been obtained from a case study of the city of Nablus, Palestine to validate the model. The model exhibits wastes generated from three types of hospitals (private, charitable, and government) by considering the number of both inpatients and outpatients depending on the population of the city under study. The model also offers the facility to compare the total waste generated among these different types of hospitals and anticipate and predict the future generated waste both infectious and non-infectious and the treatment cost incurred

Phi-indices approach and multivariable regression analysis for prediction of discharge in asymmetric straight compound open channel flows

This study is related to flow measurement structures of asymmetric compound cross section mostly suggested for sediment laden-rivers, streams and wadis. Nine different models of asymmetrical rectangular cross sections were tested for a wide range of discharges. In each model, the stages and corresponding discharges were measured. From these measurements, the average discharges utilizing the Phi-indices Approach were determined. In addition, a multivariable regression model was derived with high accuracy for the prediction of discharge in asymmetric compound channels using five dimensionless parameters

Hzard and risk assessment of pollution on the groundwater resources and residents’ health of Salfit District, Palestine

Study region: The study area is the Salfit District which is located in the northern part of the West Bank of Palestine. This district is located on the outcrops and recharge areas of the karstified dolomitic limestone aquifers of the study area. Study focus: As these aquifers are the main sources of drinking water for the residents of the district, this paper aims at evaluating groundwater pollution and assessing the vulnerability, hazards and risks of pollution on groundwater resources and on the residents’ health. New hydrological insights for the region: There are many pollutants in the Salfit's aquifer recharge area and thus percolating and polluting the groundwater aquifers. Using a Durov diagram, the sources of water proved to be polluted and, therefore, the health of the residents of Salfit District is directly threatened. A hazard map was developed to classify all polluting activities in the district. Microbiological analysis of the drinking water revealed higher levels of total and fecal Coliforms. The high incidence rate of water related diseases is an indication of the drinking water pollution. This paper contains research findings and policy recommendations to help Salfit District alleviate health and pollution problems associated with this vital resource of groundwater. In addition, Salfit governorate is encouraged to begin addressing the institutional issues and improving public awareness