Prevalence and Predictor of Exclusive Breastfeeding among Mothers of 0 to 6 months Infants from Pastoralists and Hunters’ Community in Tanzania; A Community Based Cross-Sectional Study

Background: Initiating breastfeeding during the first hour after birth and continuing breastfeeding exclusively for 6 months prevents childhood infections such as diarrhoea. Exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) for the first 6 months of life of the baby is recognised globally as the best and the most effective intervention to ensure the survival of babies. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of EBF and its predictors among mothers of 0 to 6 months infants from pastoralists and hunters’ community in Manyara region-Tanzania. Methods: This was a community-based analytical cross-sectional study that involved 342 mothers of 0 to 6 months infants who were randomly selected through 4 stage multistage sampling technique. Data was collected using an intervieweradministered questionnaire. Collected data was analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20. Binary Logistic Regression analysis was used to establish factors associated with EBF practices. Results: The prevalence of EBF among postnatal women from hunters and pastoralists societies was 47.1% at 95% CI=41.7%-52.5%. After adjusted for confounders, the predictors of EBF practice were age of infants (0-1 months, AOR= 2.838 at 95% CI = 1.326-6.075, p=.007), age of mothers (26-35 years, AOR=1.851 at 95% CI= 1.059-3.234, p=.031), Level of education of infants’ mothers (primary education, AOR= 2.374 at 95% CI= 1.321-4.265, p=.004) and knowledge on exclusive breast feeding, AOR=2.51 at 95% CI= 1.435-4.393, p=.001. Conclusion: Majority of mothers from pastoralists’ and hunters’ societies were not practising EBF. Predictors of EBF practice were; the age of infants, maternal age, level of education of the mother and knowledge on exclusive breastfeeding. Poor EBF practice was mainly contributed to low level of knowledge about the EBF. The low level of knowledge could have been contributed by poor access to maternal services. Nature of living (lack of permanent settlement) of the study population could have contributed to low access to maternal  services. An innovative interventional study is highly recommended to come up with strategies that will improve knowledge on EBF and practice of EB

Gliricidia agroforestry technology adoption potential in selected dryland areas of Dodoma Region, Tanzania

Declining soil fertility is one of the major problems facing producers of field crops in most dryland areas of Sub-Saharan Africa. In response to the declining soil fertility, extensive participatory research has been undertaken by the World Agroforestry (ICRAF) and smallholder farmers in Dodoma region, Tanzania. The research has, amongst others, led to the development of Gliricidia agroforestry technology. The positive impact of Gliricidia intercropping on crop yields has been established. However, information on farmers’ willingness and ability to adopt the Gliricidia agroforestry technology on their farms is limited. This study predicts the adoption of Gliricidia agroforestry and conventional mineral fertilizer use technology. Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were conducted with groups of farmers, purposively selected based on five sets of criteria: (i) at least 2 years of experience in either trying or using Gliricidia agroforestry technology, (ii) at least 1 year of experience in either trying or using the mineral fertilizer technology (iii) at least 10 years of living in the study villages, (iv) the age of 18 years and above, and (v) sex. The Adoption and Di usion Outcome Prediction Tool (ADOPT) was used to predict the peak adoption levels and the respective time in years. A sensitivity analysis was conducted to assess the e ect of change in adoption variables on predicted peak adoption levels and time to peak adoption. The results revealed variations in peak adoption levels with Gliricidia agroforestry technology exhibiting the highest peak of 67.6% in 12 years, and that the most influential variable to the peak adoption is the upfront cost of investing in Gliricidia agroforestry and fertilizer technologies. However, in Gliricidia agroforestry technology most production costs are incurred in the first year of project establishment but impact the long term biophysical and economic benefits. Moreover, farmers practicing agroforestry technology accrue environmental benefits, such as soil erosion control. Based on the results, it is plausible to argue that Gliricidia agroforestry technology has a high adoption potential and its adoption is influenced by investment costs. We recommend two actions to attract smallholder farmers investing in agroforestry technologies. First, enhancing farmers’ access to inputs at a ordable prices. Second, raising farmers’ awareness of the long-term environmental benefits of Gliricidia agroforestry technology

“Looking behind the scene” : opportunities and challenges of a partnership approach : the case of the "income generating activities project", Morogoro Region, Tanzania

Microfinance programs have significant potential for contributing towards improvements of agricultural and other rural sectors investments and operations and empowerments of rural community. However, access to financial institutions such as banks by smallholder farmers in rural areas is limited because of the nature of these institutions (location and conditions of service). Many of them regard lending to agricultural related income generating activities as being too risky and unprofitable. As a result farmers in Tanzania have to resort to alternative sources of credit such as Savings and Credit Cooperative Societies (SACCOS). SACCOS improve poor smallholder farmers’ access to credit by providing affordable banking services that help to finance income-generating activities and reduce poverty in rural areas. Towards this direction several rural finance projects have been established in Tanzania to assist smallholder farmers. Some of these projects have been implemented in partnership between development actors. According to project evaluation document there was discrepancy between the planned role of each partner and the actual implementation. Evaluation done focused only on the project that is why the need arise to study the relationship between partners in the project. It is on basis of this discrepancy that researcher explored the constrains faced by different partners during implementation of the project. The main research questions were two, one what are the constraints faced by partners during implementation of development of income generating activities project in Tanzania? The second main question was what induced partners to work together in development of income generating activities project in Tanzania. The empirical evidence of the study indicates that long historical relationship was the key for success of the partnership. It also shows that this partnership offered both challenges and opportunities. Challenges in reaching the interest of each partner as well as managing the partnership. Some of the challenges are lack of trust between partners, lack of clearly stated exit strategy, conflict of interest between partners and use of different approaches by partners. On the other hand partners derived some benefits by working together some being increased partners outreach, increase partners trust outside environment, bring resources that can not be obtained easily by one organization and working in partnership has helped partners to reach more farmers. It was also noted that fund was the main reason that derived partners to work together. It was pre-condition to get fund from donor. For future intervention of similar nature it is recommended that partner should first seek understanding each other first before formalizing any partnership. Also partners should ensure that there is maximum participation of all partners at every stage of the project. It is important also to build the capacity of partners in the area of partnership at the beginning of the partnership. This will add support to ensure that all partners own and understand the partnership at the beginning. Exit strategies should be clearly stated and shared between partners. When partners realize that they have approaches that differ a lot it is necessary to either stop partnership or agree on the common approach that will be used

Policy imperatives for control of market exchange failure in the cashew nut industry

NAF-International Working Paper Series, 2014This study examined the root causes of incessant market failure problem facing Tanzanian cashew nut industry. The overarching hypothesis was that the industry challenges are both structural and institutional. Competition status and economic coordination in the industry were thus duly scrutinized. Key informant and questionnaire interviews were carried out with key industry stakeholders and cashew farmers respectively. Data analysis entailed operationalizing the Institutional Analysis and Development framework, the DFID Competition Assessment Framework and estimating the Stochastic Frontier Production Model. Results showcased a systematic positive effect of the Warehouse Receipt System (WRS) on indicative and final producer prices over the years. Concentration ratio results professed the industry as being fairly concentrated and hence oligopolistic. Farmers’ input use efficiency was calculated at 51% on average suggesting that majority could be high cost producers. The WRS was vindicated as an effective system for the industry though its high transaction costs due to hiked administrative costs, weak institutional arrangements along the value chain, cooperative monopoly and inadequate enforcement of underlying regulations counteract its strength. Fair competition in the industry is stifled by clandestine buyer collusion and predatory pricing at the expense of local processing. Production cost would overstate indicative price if used as a basis for its setting given inefficient farmers. For better results the industry needs to depoliticize, change warehouses’ ergonomics, eliminate unnecessary WRS administrative costs, break cooperative monopoly to accommodate private buyers’ participation, strengthen regulatory enforcement mechanisms, restore export parity pricing procedures and establish an advisory to sieve conflicting scholar recommendations.Funded by iAGR

Comparative study between government and private forest plantations management practices: Case studies of Sao hill and green resource forest plantations, Mufindi, Iringa, Tanzania

Masters ThesisThe study was carried out in Sao Hill and GRL for comparison of management practices applied between government and private forest plantations. The study focused at identifying existing management practices, examining cost involved in forest management practices, assessing forest stand parameters and identify challenges facing management practices in Sao Hill and GRL in five years from 2012 to 2016. Data were collected through direct measurement in the forest stand parameters, structured interview for key informants, review of documents and observation. To access the stand parameters, a systematic sampling with two stages stratified sampling technique was applied and strata of age 5, 10 and 15 years were established for Pinus patula and Eucalyptus grandis. With equal allocation 180 sample plots of 0.04 ha were laid out and measurements were taken for estimation of stem quality, diameter and height, stand density, volume and basal area per hectare. Data collected were analyzed using Microsoft Excel and SPSS computer programs for descriptive and inferential statistics tools. The findings indicate that Sao Hill and GRL forest plantations practices similar major forest management practices based on establishment, tending operations, and forest protection and nursery silviculture. Between 2012 and 2016 Sao Hill was paying an annual average cost rate of TZS 6 811.06/man/day task and planting cost of TZS 70 247.32/ha for casual labour. On other hand GRL was paying annual relative lower cost rate of TZS 4 917.30/man/day and planting cost of TZS 16 750.15/ha. However Sao Hill spent the lowest cost in nursery with average of TZS 92.29 per seedling compared to TZS 145.92 per seedling in GRL. The results showed that there was a significant cost differences between Sao Hill and GRL and therefore concluded that Sao Hill spent extra cost per unit area in many areas of forest operations which should also reflect the production efficiency. Study also indicated that Sao Hill and GRL performed basic tending (weeding, pruning and thinning) as recommended in Technical Orders specifications. Stand density performance in P. patula was in moderate with Sao Hill having average of 692 sph in age 5 years’ strata alongside GRL with 520 stems per hectare, and for E. grandis Sao Hill performed better in the strata of age 5 years with mean density of 614 sph, while GRL did well for age 10 years strata with mean of 519 sph. With applied spacing of 3m x 3m still both plantations could have achieved higher stand density per hectare under proper practices. In volume performances for P. patula, the significant variations were observed in age 5 and 15 years strata whereby GRL had higher mean volume of 53.6m3/ha and 184m3/ha compared to mean volume of 24.2m3/ha and 154.1m3/ha in Sao Hill. For E. grandis major volume variations were found at ages 5 and 15 years as Sao Hill respectively had higher mean volumes of 109.1m3/ha and 261.3 m3/ha compared to 67.6m3/ha and 112.4m3/ha in GRL probably because E. grandis in Sao Hill was established under coppice regenerations. The implication of volume parameters for P. patula was associated with stem form quality of 96.43% straightness in Sao Hill and 92.79% in GRL while the E. grandis having 93.0% straightness form in Sao Hill and 92.89% straightness in GRL stands. Consequently from 2012 to 2016 Sao Hill and GRL plantation were prone to fire incidents and GRL lost 1592.5 ha of planted forests while Sao Hill lost at least 227.14 ha because of uncontrolled human activities and low technology in firefighting gears. Fund limitation was to some extent influencing management of Sao Hill and GRL forest plantations regarding fire and other issues

Comparative study between government and private forest plantations management practices: Case studies of Sao hill and green resource forest plantations, Mufindi, Iringa, Tanzania

Masters ThesisThe study was carried out in Sao Hill and GRL for comparison of management practices applied between government and private forest plantations. The study focused at identifying existing management practices, examining cost involved in forest management practices, assessing forest stand parameters and identify challenges facing management practices in Sao Hill and GRL in five years from 2012 to 2016. Data were collected through direct measurement in the forest stand parameters, structured interview for key informants, review of documents and observation. To access the stand parameters, a systematic sampling with two stages stratified sampling technique was applied and strata of age 5, 10 and 15 years were established for Pinus patula and Eucalyptus grandis. With equal allocation 180 sample plots of 0.04 ha were laid out and measurements were taken for estimation of stem quality, diameter and height, stand density, volume and basal area per hectare. Data collected were analyzed using Microsoft Excel and SPSS computer programs for descriptive and inferential statistics tools. The findings indicate that Sao Hill and GRL forest plantations practices similar major forest management practices based on establishment, tending operations, and forest protection and nursery silviculture. Between 2012 and 2016 Sao Hill was paying an annual average cost rate of TZS 6 811.06/man/day task and planting cost of TZS 70 247.32/ha for casual labour. On other hand GRL was paying annual relative lower cost rate of TZS 4 917.30/man/day and planting cost of TZS 16 750.15/ha. However Sao Hill spent the lowest cost in nursery with average of TZS 92.29 per seedling compared to TZS 145.92 per seedling in GRL. The results showed that there was a significant cost differences between Sao Hill and GRL and therefore concluded that Sao Hill spent extra cost per unit area in many areas of forest operations which should also reflect the production efficiency. Study also indicated that Sao Hill and GRL performed basic tending (weeding, pruning and thinning) as recommended in Technical Orders specifications. Stand density performance in P. patula was in moderate with Sao Hill having average of 692 sph in age 5 years’ strata alongside GRL with 520 stems per hectare, and for E. grandis Sao Hill performed better in the strata of age 5 years with mean density of 614 sph, while GRL did well for age 10 years strata with mean of 519 sph. With applied spacing of 3m x 3m still both plantations could have achieved higher stand density per hectare under proper practices. In volume performances for P. patula, the significant variations were observed in age 5 and 15 years strata whereby GRL had higher mean volume of 53.6m3/ha and 184m3/ha compared to mean volume of 24.2m3/ha and 154.1m3/ha in Sao Hill. For E. grandis major volume variations were found at ages 5 and 15 years as Sao Hill respectively had higher mean volumes of 109.1m3/ha and 261.3 m3/ha compared to 67.6m3/ha and 112.4m3/ha in GRL probably because E. grandis in Sao Hill was established under coppice regenerations. The implication of volume parameters for P. patula was associated with stem form quality of 96.43% straightness in Sao Hill and 92.79% in GRL while the E. grandis having 93.0% straightness form in Sao Hill and 92.89% straightness in GRL stands. Consequently from 2012 to 2016 Sao Hill and GRL plantation were prone to fire incidents and GRL lost 1592.5 ha of planted forests while Sao Hill lost at least 227.14 ha because of uncontrolled human activities and low technology in firefighting gears. Fund limitation was to some extent influencing management of Sao Hill and GRL forest plantations regarding fire and other issues

Socio-economic determinants of household participation in large-scale agricultural investments and its influence on livelihood outcomes in Kilombero Valley, Tanzania

Thesis, Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2018Large-scale agricultural investments have the potential of improving household livelihood outcomes among households participating in the out-grower schemes and in the investor farm wage employment. However, there is no consensus whether large-scale agricultural investments generate better livelihood outcomes for participating households. This study was conducted in Kilombero Valley in Tanzania to examine socio-economic determinants of household participation in large-scale agricultural investments and the influence of socio-economic characteristics and large-scale agricultural investments on household livelihood outcomes. Data were collected through Key Informant Interviews (KIIs), Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and involving a sample of 376 households in the survey. Content analysis was used to analyse qualitative data. Quantitative data were analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The analysis was done using the following techniques: descriptive statistics, multiple responses analysis, binary logistic regression, One Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), independent samples t-test and multiple regression. The results show that there were associations between out-growers scheme opportunities and household headship with Male-Headed Households (MHHs) enjoying more benefits. There were differences between households participating in sugarcane out-grower scheme, the non-participants and investor farm wage employment in terms of livelihood outcomes (p < 0.05) with MHHs having higher livelihood outcomes. There was a difference in livelihood outcomes by household headship (p < 0.05) and MHHs had higher livelihood outcomes. The most important predictors of household participation in the out-grower schemes were age, household headship, and group membership, access to credit, distance to investor, asset stocks and asset ownership (p < 0.05). Household participation in the investor farm wage employment was influenced by age, household headship, marital status, land size, asset stocks and income (p < 0.05). iii The age of household head, years of schooling, household size, land size, group membership, household participation in the out-grower scheme, and livelihood strategies had influence on household livelihood outcomes (p < 0.05). Therefore, MHHs participating in the out-grower schemes derived more benefits in terms of opportunities and showed possibilities of having higher livelihood outcomes than FHHs. Households‟ participation in the out-grower scheme is influenced by socio-economic characteristics including gender variables. Also, household participation in the investor farm wage employment reflected gender differences with MHHs and married household heads having higher chances of participating in the investor farm employment. Out-growers benefit more from large-scale agricultural investments compared to investor farm workers and to non-participants. Household livelihood outcomes depend on household socio-economic characteristics and household participation in large-scale agricultural investment through the out-grower schemes. The study recommends that Local Government Authorities and non-governmental organizations involved in promoting livelihood improvement through large-scale agricultural investments should train out-growers on the diversification of livelihood strategies, group strengthening and promoting gender dialogues in the community with a view to changing gender norms that discriminate against FHHs from participating in the out-grower schemes as well as promoting FHHs ownership of sugarcane land. Out-grower associations, in collaboration with investors, should set up plans to ensure that there is a representation of out-growers in every decision making process that affects their payments and raise household livelihood outcomes by raising the minimum wages of those working in the investor farms

Improving Paddy Production Through Strengthening Capacities of Smallholder Farmers on System of Rice Intensification and Saving and Credit: A Case of Igurusi Ward, Mbarali District in Mbeya Region

The “Improving Paddy Production through Strengthening Capacities of Smallholder Producers on System of Rice Intensification and saving and Credit” is a research project that was implemented from October 2012 in Igurusi ward, with the aim to improve the livelihood for smallholder farmers involved in paddy production. However, producer’s farmers in Igurusi ward are facing challenges of lacking access to reliable saving and Credit for their products, rice being one of them. Currently, few farmers’ use Muungano SACCOs to meet their credit demands. Due to lack of reliable saving and credit, producers are not able to cater for the need of labour and they are forced to use seed from previous harvest. The researcher used participatory methods appropriate to enable him collect data without biasness. Primary data was collected by using participatory methods such as field visits, observation, interviews and Focused Group Discussions while taking into consideration gender aspects. The community need assessment enabled the researcher to clearly identify the real community challenges, factors influencing the challenges and community assets available by encouraging full participation of the community in the process. As result from the research process, the lack of access to reliable saving and credit for agro produce and inadequate knowledge and skills for farmers to undertake remunerative were identified as core problems hindering social economic development and livelihood improvement of smallholder farmers in Igurusi Ward. Fortunately, the currently agricultural production and saving and credit for agro - produce is among key national priorities that have gained strong institutional and policy support to reduce income poverty in Tanzania. Rice on other side is among high value crops being promoted for marketing in many parts of Tanzania as a cash crop

The spice industry in Tanzania: general profile, supply chain structure, and food standards compliance issues

DIIS Working Paper no 2007/8The fall in the agricultural sector’s contribution to Tanzanian export earnings since the early 1990s has increased attention toward new crops with the potential of supplementing the country’s traditional export crops. Particular attention has been focused upon identifying crops enjoying price stability, high demand elasticity and low substitutability. Spices fall into this category. Consequently there have been efforts by public agencies and private exporters, both on the mainland and on Zanzibar, to promote the crop. However, access to high value export markets raises issues of supply chain dynamics and conformity with international standards. This paper focuses upon the recent history of the spice industry in Tanzania with reference to these issues. The main conclusions are that Certified Organic standards are the only international standards complied with, and that a very loosely coordinated chain exists alongside a more coordinated one. Macro- and micro-institutional weaknesses need attention if the full potential of the sub-sector is to be realized