Associations Between Habitual School-Day Breakfast Consumption Frequency and Academic Performance in British Adolescents

Studies indicate that breakfast positively affects learning in children. The present study aimed to examine associations between habitual school-day breakfast consumption frequency and academic performance, as measured by the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). The GCSE is a national academic qualification obtained by most British children during secondary education. Adolescents aged 16–18 years (n = 294; females: 77.2%) completed a retrospective 7-day food diary to report breakfast intake and a questionnaire to report GCSE grades. Breakfast was defined as any food or drink containing ≥5% of total energy expenditure (TEE) consumed up to 10:00 a.m. on school days. Habitual weekly school-day breakfast consumption frequency was categorized as rare (0–1 school days), occasional (2–3 school days), or frequent (4–5 school days). GCSE grades were aggregated into point scores and linear regression models were applied. Participants' GCSE grades in Mathematics and English were analyzed using ordinal logistic regression. Adolescents who rarely consumed breakfast on school days had a significantly lower capped point score (β = −0.13, p < 0.05) and mean point score (β = −0.14, p < 0.05) compared with frequent consumers. Low/middle socio-economic status (SES) adolescents who rarely consumed breakfast were significantly less likely to achieve higher Mathematics grades compared to low/middle SES adolescents who frequently consumed breakfast [adjusted cumulative odds ratio (OR): 0.35 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.17–0.72]. This cross-sectional study demonstrates that habitual school-day breakfast consumption amongst adolescents is a significant correlate of GCSE attainment. The results offer promising associative evidence which warrants further exploration in well controlled studies

The effects of breakfast on behaviour and academic performance in children and adolescents

Breakfast consumption is associated with positive outcomes for diet quality, micronutrient intake, weight status and lifestyle factors. Breakfast has been suggested to positively affect learning in children in terms of behaviour, cognitive and school performance. However, these assertions are largely based on evidence which demonstrates acute effects of breakfast on cognitive performance. Less research which examines the effects of breakfast on the ecologically valid outcomes of academic performance or in-class behaviour is available. The literature was searched for articles published between 1950-2013 indexed in Ovid MEDLINE, Pubmed, Web of Science, the Cochrane Library, EMBASE databases and PsychINFO. Thirty-six articles examining the effects of breakfast on in-class behaviour and academic performance in children and adolescents were included. The effects of breakfast in different populations were considered, including undernourished or well-nourished children and adolescents from differing socio36 economic status (SES) backgrounds. The habitual and acute effects of breakfast and the effects of school breakfast programs (SBPs) were considered. The evidence indicated a mainly positive effect of breakfast on on-task behaviour in the classroom. There was suggestive evidence that habitual breakfast (frequency and quality) and SBPs have a positive effect on children's academic performance with clearest effects on mathematic and arithmetic grades in undernourished children. Increased frequency of habitual breakfast was consistently positively associated with academic performance. Some evidence suggested that quality of habitual breakfast, in terms of providing a greater variety of food groups and adequate energy, was positively related to school performance. However, these associations can be attributed, in part, to confounders such as SES and to methodological weaknesses such as the subjective nature of the observations of behaviour in class

Methodological Challenges in Studies Examining the Effects of Breakfast on Cognitive Performance and Appetite in Children and Adolescents

Breakfast is purported to confer a number of benefits on diet quality, health, appetite regulation, and cognitive performance. However, new evidence has challenged the long-held belief that breakfast is the most important meal of the day. This review aims to provide a comprehensive discussion of the key methodological challenges and considerations in studies assessing the effect of breakfast on cognitive performance and appetite control, along with recommendations for future research. This review focuses on the myriad challenges involved in studying children and adolescents specifically. Key methodological challenges and considerations include study design and location, sampling and sample section, choice of objective cognitive tests, choice of objective and subjective appetite measures, merits of providing a fixed breakfast compared with ad libitum, assessment and definition of habitual breakfast consumption, transparency of treatment condition, difficulty of isolating the direct effects of breakfast consumption, untangling acute and chronic effects, and influence of confounding variables. These methodological challenges have hampered a clear substantiation of the potential positive effects of breakfast on cognition and appetite control and contributed to the debate questioning the notion that breakfast is the most important meal of the day

Oily fish consumption in young adults: current intakes, knowledge, barriers and motivations

Background:  Long chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA) play an important role in the prevention of many health problems, including cardiovascular disease, mental health issues such as depression and neurological malformations during foetal growth. The Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition recommends that adults should consume at least two portions of fish per week, one of which (approximately 140 g) should be oily, although there be safe upper levels for intake (SACN, 2004). Despite dietary recommendations, recent surveys suggest only one in four adults eat oily fish regularly and that the average intake in consumers is only 45g week-1, approximately one-third of a portion (Bates et al., 2010). This study aimed to improve understanding of the knowledge, motivations, barriers and information access regarding oily fish in young adults in whom dietary habits may still be developing to inform methods for increasing consumption. Methods:  A self-administered cross-sectional survey was used to collect data from students at the University of Bristol [n = 112, mean (SD) age 20.9 (2.6) years, 75% female]. The survey was developed from two previously validated questionnaires to assess current fish intake, knowledge, motivations, barriers and information access in relation to oily fish consumption . The survey was delivered via the University of Bristol Online Survey system. A chi-squared test was used to test for differences between groups and Spearman's rank correlation coefficient was used to identify associations. Alpha was set at <0.05. Results:  Only 36.6% of participants met the dietary recommendation of eating ≥1 portion of oily fish per week. Where oily fish was eaten, the average portion size was below recommended levels at 106 g. A large proportion of participants lacked specific awareness of the intake recommendations (48.8%) and safe upper levels for women (68.8%) and men (70.5%). Neither the frequency of consumption of oily fish, nor the meeting the dietary recommendation significantly differed by overall knowledge level (χ2 = 18.166, d.f. = 15, P = 0.254; χ2 = 1.913, d.f. = 3, P = 0.591, respectively). The main motivational drivers for fish consumption were liking the taste (77.3%) and knowing the associated health benefits (69.1%). The perceived high price (36.8%), unpleasant smell (38.9%) and dislike of taste (30.5%) were the main reported barriers to consuming oily fish. Other key barriers included a dislike of bones (21.5%) and difficulty with preparation and cooking (19.6%). A dislike of the taste was strongly negatively associated with consumption behaviour (r = -0.372, P = 0.004). Wholly or partially following a vegetarian diet was negatively associated with fish consumption and in turn n-3 PUFA intake (r = -0.286, P = 0.31). The types of information participants said they would most like to receive on fish were recipes (38.4%), details of health benefits (30.4%) and tips on cooking and preparation methods (29.5%). Online routes such as e-mail prompts were the preferred channel of communication for this information. Discussion:  Lack of awareness of the dietary recommendations and health benefits of fish has also been noted in previous studies (Burger, 2008). Previous studies have also reported similar barriers to oily fish consumption (Jones & Cornu, 1994). Together, these findings indicate a need to increase understanding of specific key issues around oily fish intake in young people. They suggest a value of health promotion strategies including electronic routes, that address cost, taste, smell, convenience and preparation and cooking issues including recipes and vegetarian sources of n-3 PUFA alternatives. Conclusions:  Oily fish consumption in young people may be facilitated by using electronic methods to target barriers to consumption, gaps in knowledge and awareness around fish consumption

Decreased Total Carbonic Anhydrase Esterase Activity and Decreased Levels of Carbonic Anhydrase 1 Isozyme in Erythrocytes of Type II Diabetic Patients

In this exploratory study, we investigated total erythrocyte carbonic anhydrase (CA) estrase activity as well as CA I isozyme concentration in patients with diabetes mellitus type II (DM) and healthy individuals of Howard University Hospital community. Total estrase activity of CA was measured spectrophotometrically using p-nitrophenol acetate before and after inhibition with acetazolamide. CA I isozyme was measured by radial immunodiffusion using monoclonal antibody (CA I) in agarose plates. The study involved 20 consented participants; 10 normal (N) and 10 (DM), 21 to 84 years of age. The study was approved by the Howard University Institution Review Board. The CA activity was measured following lysis of cells as U/min/mL and CA I concentration as mg/l. We observed CA activity as 46.3±4(N) and 25±2.1 (DM) whereas CA I concentration as 1896±125 (N) and 1104 ±63 (DM). We speculate that the change in the CA activity may of fundamental importance in the regulation of intracellular; pHi for the basic control of metabolism in diabetes mellitus. Further, we propose that CA activity is a good candidate for a biomarker of diabetes mellitus for the early detection of insulin resistance because the CA activity variation was proportional to the severity of the diabetes

Ready-to-eat cereal and milk for breakfast compared with no breakfast has a positive acute effect on cognitive function and subjective state in 11–13-year-olds: a school-based, randomised, controlled, parallel groups trial

Purpose We tested the acute effect of breakfast (ready-to-eat-cereal [RTEC] and milk) versus (vs.) no breakfast on cognitive function and subjective state in adolescents. Methods Healthy adolescents (n = 234) aged 11–13 years were recruited to take part in this school-based, acute, randomised, controlled, parallel groups trial with two interventions; Breakfast or No Breakfast. The breakfast intervention consisted of ad libitum intake of RTEC (up to 70 g) with milk (up to 300 ml) administered in a naturalistic school breakfast programme environment. Cognitive function was assessed at baseline and + 70 and + 215 min post-intervention in a group-testing situation, similar to a school classroom context. The CANTAB test battery included: Simple Reaction Time (SRT), 5-Choice Reaction Time (5-CRT), Rapid Visual Information Processing (RVIP), and Paired Associates Learning (PAL; primary outcome). Data collection commenced January 2011 and ended May 2011. This trial was retrospectively registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03979027 on 07/06/2019. Results A significant effect of the intervention (CMH[1] = 7.29, p < 0.01) was found for the number of levels achieved on the PAL task. A significant difference between interventions was found when baseline performance reached level 2 (JT, z = 2.58, p < 0.01), such that 100% of participants in the breakfast intervention reached the maximum level 4 but only 41.7% of those in the no breakfast intervention reached level 4. A significant baseline*intervention interaction (F[1,202] = 6.95, p < 0.01) was found for total errors made on the PAL task, indicating that participants who made above-average errors at baseline reduced the total number of errors made at subsequent test sessions following breakfast consumption whilst those in the no breakfast intervention did not. There was a positive effect of breakfast on reaction time and visual-sustained attention. The results also demonstrated interactions of intervention with baseline cognitive performance, such that breakfast conferred a greater advantage for performance when baseline performance was poorer. Conclusion Consuming breakfast has a positive acute effect on cognition in adolescents

Meeting UK Fibre Intake Recommendations in Food Insecure Households: The Availability of Fibre from Redistributed Surplus Food

Background: The majority of UK adults are failing to consume the recommended fibre intake levels. Whilst insufficient fibre intake is shown across the population as a whole, it is particularly deficient in low-income households. The cost-of-living crisis has further exacerbated the prevalence of food insecurity, with an increasing number of UK households becoming reliant on redistributed food to supplement their diets. The availability of fibre from this redistributed food is unknown. Objectives: To examine the quantities and sources of fibre available to food insecure households via surplus food redistribution. Methods: 12 months of food processed by a UK surplus food charity was examined to quantify the availability of fibre (grams per 2000 kcal) redistributed to food insecure populations in Leeds. These data were also examined to identify seasonal variation in fibre sources, food groups providing most fibre content, and to quantify the number of ‘sources of’ (SO) and ‘high in’ (HI) fibre foods as a proportion of total food items redistributed. Results: The recommended portion of 30g of fibre per 2000 calories was available for redistribution for 3 out of 12 months in 2022. However, this was due to the sporadic availability of specific individual high fibre snack items, rather than reflective of the balance of diet commonly available. Frequently received SO/HI fibre foods were not donated in large quantities, required complex cooking, or were not nutritionally balanced. There was no seasonal variation in fibre sources evident. Discussion: Redistribution of surplus food can provide critical support to food insecure households. The nutritional balance of this food is largely dependent on the types of foods available for redistribution, so fluctuations in fibre availability is expected. Whilst insufficient to meet the recommended 30g/day of fibre, the food available for redistribution was sufficient to meet and exceed the levels of fibre commonly consumed in the general population (~20 g/day). Insight into the quantity and types of fibre-rich foods available for redistribution can: (i) inform specific interventions (e.g., recipe ideas) to increase the consumption of these available foods, (ii) help identify which types and sources of fibre are not commonly available and should be prioritised