Advantaging Aggressors: Justice & Deterrence in International Law

Current international law imposes limitations on the use of force to defend against unlawful aggression that improperly advantage unlawful aggressors and disadvantage their victims. The Article gives examples of such rules, governing a variety of situations, showing how clearly unjust they can be. No domestic criminal law system would tolerate their use. There are good practical reasons why international law should care that its rules are perceived as unjust. Given the lack of an effective international law enforcement mechanism, compliance depends to a large degree upon the moral authority with which international law speaks. Compliance is less likely when its rules are perceived as obviously unjust. This common sense perspective is supported by social science research showing the importance of law\u27s moral credibility in gaining assistance and compliance, in reducing resistance and subversion, and in helping to shape shared norms. The current practice of victim states ignoring legal limitations, with studied indifference to such violations by the international community, only legitimizes and habituates law-breaking, further undermining international law\u27s moral credibility. Interpretations of international law can be constructed that would narrow the gap between the legal rules and moral intuitions regarding the use of defensive force. Such revisionist interpretations may be a useful temporary measure, but are not a solution, because the gap between law and justice can be narrowed but not closed by reinterpretation alone. Ultimately, reform is required of international law\u27s foundational texts. International law limitations on responses to aggression are also improper for reasons beyond their conflict with principles of justice instantiated in domestic criminal law. International law and domestic criminal law are importantly different. Most fundamentally, international law lacks an effective law enforcement system. In order to effectively control unlawful aggression, international law needs to have fewer limitations on responses to aggression than criminal law, not more limitations. A series of examples of such improper limitations are discussed. Each has the unfortunate effect of promoting aggression and instability by undermining effective deterrence. Again, there exist possible reinterpretations of international law that could avoid some of the improper limitations but, ultimately, a reform of international law\u27s foundational texts is required. One important opportunity for reforming international law is currently being squandered. The Assembly of State Parties to the International Criminal Court has recently approved a resolution defining the international crime of aggression. However, rather than confront international law\u27s existing problems, the drafters compounded them by imposing individual criminal liability on leaders of victim states who authorize defensive force in violation of flawed current law. Fortunately, the resolution will not go into effect until 2017 at the earliest. There is still time to change course

Advantaging Aggressors: Justice & Deterrence in International Law

Current international law imposes limitations on the use of force to defend against unlawful aggression that improperly advantage unlawful aggressors and disadvantage their victims. The Article gives examples of such rules, governing a variety of situations, showing how clearly unjust they can be. No domestic criminal law system would tolerate their use. There are good practical reasons why international law should care that its rules are perceived as unjust. Given the lack of an effective international law enforcement mechanism, compliance depends to a large degree upon the moral authority with which international law speaks. Compliance is less likely when its rules are perceived as obviously unjust. This common sense perspective is supported by social science research showing the importance of law\u27s moral credibility in gaining assistance and compliance, in reducing resistance and subversion, and in helping to shape shared norms. The current practice of victim states ignoring legal limitations, with studied indifference to such violations by the international community, only legitimizes and habituates law-breaking, further undermining international law\u27s moral credibility. Interpretations of international law can be constructed that would narrow the gap between the legal rules and moral intuitions regarding the use of defensive force. Such revisionist interpretations may be a useful temporary measure, but are not a solution, because the gap between law and justice can be narrowed but not closed by reinterpretation alone. Ultimately, reform is required of international law\u27s foundational texts. International law limitations on responses to aggression are also improper for reasons beyond their conflict with principles of justice instantiated in domestic criminal law. International law and domestic criminal law are importantly different. Most fundamentally, international law lacks an effective law enforcement system. In order to effectively control unlawful aggression, international law needs to have fewer limitations on responses to aggression than criminal law, not more limitations. A series of examples of such improper limitations are discussed. Each has the unfortunate effect of promoting aggression and instability by undermining effective deterrence. Again, there exist possible reinterpretations of international law that could avoid some of the improper limitations but, ultimately, a reform of international law\u27s foundational texts is required. One important opportunity for reforming international law is currently being squandered. The Assembly of State Parties to the International Criminal Court has recently approved a resolution defining the international crime of aggression. However, rather than confront international law\u27s existing problems, the drafters compounded them by imposing individual criminal liability on leaders of victim states who authorize defensive force in violation of flawed current law. Fortunately, the resolution will not go into effect until 2017 at the earliest. There is still time to change course

An Optimised Approach of Protecting and Sustaining Large Vehicle System

This article is a synopsis of our research and highlights the outcomes and its impact. It was conducted for the development of a sustainable approach to protect and sustain large vehicles in sheltered environment for their enhanced longevity. In this research various modes of failures linked directly or indirectly to the structural ageing of large vehicles were identified, measured, and analysed. Based upon the research conducted; A frame-work to retard structural failures and in-situ condition monitoring has been proposed with an objective to prolong the structural longevity cost effectively

Modeling the Effect of Residual and Diffusion-Induced Stresses on Corrosion at the Interface of Coating and Substrate

The effect of residual and diffusion induced stresses on corrosion at the interface of coating and substrate has been analysed within a multidisciplinary approach i.e. material science, solid mechanics and electrochemistry. A self-consistent equation for corrosion current density, involving the combined effect of residual stress and diffusion induced stress is developed. The influences of temperature, moduli ratio, thickness ratio, thermal mismatch ratio and residual stress gradient of coating and substrate on the corrosion current density are then discussed. Results indicate that when the thermal expansion of coating is greater than substrate, the decrease in temperature from fabrication temperature accounts for the same direction of both the residual and the diffusion stresses. This behaviour increases the deflection of coating-substrate system and results in the evolution of tensile residual stress in the coating. The tensile stress opens the pre-existing coating micro crack allowing the diffusion of corrosive agents and therefore, accelerating the corrosion damage to the coating-substrate interface. The model is based on experimental observations conducted to understand the behaviour of corrosion at the coating-substrate interface in the presence of tensile or compressive residual stresses. At the end the model has been validated against the experimental results showing a good quantitative agreement between the predicted theoretical and experimental trends

Design of RF Frontend Unit to Avoid Intermodulation Using Arduino Uno

Designing a Radio Frequency (RF) front end is vastly realized for determining the level of integration that is required in the signal chain inside the receivers to be idealistic. The receivers is susceptible to harmful intermodulation due to nonlinear RF front ends. In this paper, intermodulation distortion is avoided by a selective prototype hardware design of RF fort end which is connected with the Arduino Uno for controlling the power levels. The measurements are tested out as a result of injecting a signals within x-band frequencies and chosen different power levels are assumed. These measurements is revealed an accepted results for the intermodulation avoidance

New Adaptive Data Transmission Scheme Over HF Radio

Acceptable Bit Error rate can be maintained by adapting some of the design parameters such as modulation, symbol rate, constellation size, and transmit power according to the channel state.<br />An estimate of HF propagation effects can be used to design an adaptive data transmission system over HF link. The proposed system combines the well known Automatic Link Establishment (ALE) together with variable rate transmission system. The standard ALE is modified to suite the required goal of selecting the best carrier frequency (channel) for a given transmission. This is based on measuring SINAD (Signal plus Noise plus Distortion to Noise plus Distortion), RSL (Received Signal Level), multipath phase distortion and BER (Bit Error Rate) for each channel in the frequency list. Channel condition evaluation is done by two arrangements. In the first an FFT analysis is used where a pilot signal is transmitted over the channel, while the data itself is used in the second arrangement. Passive channel assessment is used to avoid bad channels hence limiting the frequency pool size to be used in the point to point communication and the time required for scanning and linking. An exchange of channel information between the transmitting and receiving stations is considered to select the modulation scheme for transmission. Mainly MPSK and MFSK are considered with different levels giving different data rate according to the channel condition. The results of the computer simulation have shown that when transmitting at a fixed channel symbol rate of 1200 symbol/sec, the information rate ranges from 2400 bps using 4FSK up to 3600 bps using 8PSK for SNR ranges from 11dB up to 26dB.<br /

Research Impact of Conserving Large Military Vehicles through a Sustainable Methodology

The objective of this paper is to present the research impact, significance and reach made for British military Heritage. An effective knowledge exchange model is being developed in terms of substantial contribution to the identification, measurement, analysis, prediction and condition monitoring of structural failures within military tanks with enormous societal and economic impact. This is the first evidence based research carried out in this field and is directly linked to the development of a new conservation facility, further research and grants

Wear and Friction Properties of Electrodeposited Ni-Based Coatings Subject to Nano-enhanced Lubricant and Composite Coating.

This paper presents research findings on the tribological performance of electrodeposited coatings subject to nano-lubricants with the addition of nano-Al2O3 and graphene and Ni/nano-Al2O3 composite coatings. Electrodeposited coatings were produced by using a pulse electrodeposition method. Tribological experiments were conducted by using a linear reciprocating ball on flat sliding tribometer. Experimental results confirm that the wear and friction resistance properties have been significantly enhanced by doping of nano-effects in the lubricating oil and composite coating. The addition of Al2O3 nanoparticles in the lubricating oil showed the best tribological properties, followed by Ni-Al2O3 composite coatings and nano-oil with graphene. The surface morphology and microstructure of electrodeposited coatings were examined by using a Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) and X-ray Diffraction (XRD). The wear mechanisms of these coatings subjected to tribological testing were investigated by post-test surface analyses. This research provides novel approach to design durable nano-coatings for tribological applications in various industries such as automotive, aerospace, locomotive and renewable energy technologies

Excitation and Governing Control of a Power Generation Based Intelligent System

Modern power systems are complex and non-linear and their operating conditionscan vary over a wide range. In this work, the power system (PS) transient terminalvoltage and frequency stability enhancement have been well investigated and studiedthrough the following efforts.• Enhancing the responses of the transient stability by adopting conventional PIDcontrollers as an additional voltage controller with the Automatic Voltage Regulator(AVR) in the excitation system for terminal voltage, and in the governing system forfrequency deviation response.• ANN (NARMA-L2) system is proposed as an effective controller model to achieve thedesired enhancement. This model after training can be called as (Identifier). Thisidentifier follows the system behavior even in situation of high disturbances.There are enhancement progress in terminal voltage Vt , and frequency deviation Δωthrough the investigation for the three cases (without controller, with PID controller, andwith NN controller) for single machine infinite bus using MATLAB – Simulink software

Design Optimization and Efficiency Enhancement of Linear Induction Motor

This paper presents the dynamic behavior of a Single Sided Linear Induction Motor (SLIM) by changing many design parameters of a reference model of SLIM then an optimization process is adopted to give the final equivalent circuit of the proposed modified model. This analysis is prepared by using MATLAB package, version 7.8 (R2009a) for optimization and enhancement evaluation. The improvement in performance is performed by enhancing the efficiency power factor product ( cos ) which can be regarded as the enhancement criteria for the modified model of this motor. This factor improved from 0.23 of the reference model to 0.66 of the optimized model