Nitric oxide triggers a transient metabolic reprogramming in Arabidopsis

[EN] Nitric oxide (NO) regulates plant growth and development as well as responses to stress that enhanced its endogenous production. Arabidopsis plants exposed to a pulse of exogenous NO gas were used for untargeted global metabolomic analyses thus allowing the identification of metabolic processes affected by NO. At early time points after treatment, NO scavenged superoxide anion and induced the nitration and the S-nitrosylation of proteins. These events preceded an extensive though transient metabolic reprogramming at 6 h after NO treatment, which included enhanced levels of polyamines, lipid catabolism and accumulation of phospholipids, chlorophyll breakdown, protein and nucleic acid turnover and increased content of sugars. Accordingly, lipid-related structures such as root cell membranes and leaf cuticle altered their permeability upon NO treatment. Besides, NO-treated plants displayed degradation of starch granules, which is consistent with the increased sugar content observed in the metabolomic survey. The metabolic profile was restored to baseline levels at 24 h post-treatment, thus pointing up the plasticity of plant metabolism in response to nitroxidative stress conditions.This work was supported by grants BIO2011-27526 and BIO2014-56067-P from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness and FEDER funds. We thank support and comments from Danny Alexander (Metabolon Inc., USA) on metabolomic analyses.Leon Ramos, J.; Costa-Broseta, Á.; Castillo López Del Toro, MC. (2016). Nitric oxide triggers a transient metabolic reprogramming in Arabidopsis. Scientific Reports. 6:1-14. doi:10.1038/srep37945S1146Arc, E., Galland, M., Godin, B., Cueff, G. & Rajjou, L. Nitric oxide implication in the control of seed dormancy and germination. Front. Plant Sci. 4, 346 (2013).Beligni, M. V. & Lamattina, L. Nitric oxide stimulates seed germination and de-etiolation, and inhibits hypocotyl elongation, three light-inducible responses in plants. Planta 210, 215–221 (2000).Lozano-Juste, J. & León, J. Nitric oxide regulates DELLA content and PIF expression to promote photomorphogenesis in Arabidopsis. Plant Physiol. 156, 1410–1123 (2011).He, Y. et al. Nitric oxide represses the Arabidopsis floral transition. Science 305, 1968–1971 (2004).Tsai, Y. C., Delk, N. A., Chowdhury, N. I. & Braam, J. Arabidopsis potential calcium sensors regulate nitric oxide levels and the transition to flowering. Plant Signal. Behav. 2, 446–454 (2007).Manjunatha, G., Lokesh, V. & Neelwarne, B. Nitric oxide in fruit ripening: trends and opportunities. Biotechnol. Adv. 28, 489–499 (2010).Liu, F. & Guo, F. Q. Nitric oxide deficiency accelerates chlorophyll breakdown and stability loss of thylakoid membranes during dark-induced leaf senescence in Arabidopsis. PLoS One 8(2), e56345 (2013).Du, J. et al. Nitric oxide induces cotyledon senescence involving co-operation of the NES1/MAD1 and EIN2-associated ORE1 signalling pathways in Arabidopsis. J. Exp. Bot. 65, 4051–4063 (2014).Siddiqui, M. H., Al-Whaibi, M. H. & Basalah, M. O. Role of nitric oxide in tolerance of plants to abiotic stress. Protoplasma 248, 447–455 (2011).Arasimowicz-Jelonek, M. & Floryszak-Wieczorek, J. Nitric oxide: an effective weapon of the plant or the pathogen? Mol. Plant Pathol. 15, 406–416 (2014).Thomas, D. D. Breathing new life into nitric oxide signaling: A brief overview of the interplay between oxygen and nitric oxide. Redox Biol. 5, 225–33 (2015).Groβ, F., Durner, J. & Gaupels, F. Nitric oxide, antioxidants and prooxidants in plant defence responses. Front. Plant Sci. 4, 419 (2013).Astier, J. & Lindermayr, C. Nitric oxide-dependent posttranslational modification in plants: an update. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 13, 15193–15208 (2012).Hess, D. T. & Stamler, J. S. Regulation by S-nitrosylation of protein post-translational modification. J. Biol. Chem. 287, 4411–4418 (2012).Guerra, D. D. & Callis, J. Ubiquitin on the move: the ubiquitin modification system plays diverse roles in the regulation of endoplasmic reticulum- and plasma membrane-localized proteins. Plant Physiol. 160, 56–64 (2012).Skalska, K., Miller, J. S. & Ledakowicz, S. Trends in NO(x) abatement: a review. Sci. Total Environ. 408, 3976–3989 (2010).Pilegaard, K. Processes regulating nitric oxide emissions from soils. Phil. Transac. Royal Soc. London. Ser. B, Biol. Sci. 368, 20130126 (2013).Jaegle, L., Steinberger, L., Martin, R. V. & Chance, K. Global partitioning of NOx sources using satellite observations: Relative roles of fossil fuel combustion, biomass burning and soil emissions. Faraday Discus. 130, 407–423 (2005).Gupta, K. J., Fernie, A. R., Kaiser, W. M. & van Dongen, J. T. On the origins of nitric oxide. Trends Plant Sci. 16, 160–168 (2011).Mur, L. A. et al. Nitric oxide in plants: an assessment of the current state of knowledge. AoB Plants 5, pls052 (2013).Correa-Aragunde, N., Foresi, N. & Lamattina, L. Nitric oxide is a ubiquitous signal for maintaining redox balance in plant cells: regulation of ascorbate peroxidase as a case study. J. Exp. Bot. 66, 2913–2921 (2015).Noctor, G., Lelarge-Trouverie, C. & Mhamdi, A. The metabolomics of oxidative stress. Phytochemistry 112, 33–53 (2015).Allan, W. L., Simpson, J. P., Clark, S. M. & Shelp, B. J. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate accumulation in Arabidopsis and tobacco plants is a general response to abiotic stress: putative regulation by redox balance and glyoxylate reductase isoforms. J. Exp. Bot. 59, 2555–2564 (2008).Romero, L. C., Aroca, M. Á., Laureano-Marín, A. M., Moreno, I., García, I. & Gotor, C. Cysteine and cysteine-related signaling pathways in Arabidopsis thaliana. Mol. Plant 7, 264–276 (2014).Noctor, G. et al. Glutathione in plants: an integrated overview. Plant Cell Environ. 35, 454–484 (2012).Feussner, I. & Wasternack, C. The lipoxygenase pathway. Ann. Rev. Plant Biol. 53, 275–297 (2002).Green, M. A. & Fry, S. C. Vitamin C degradation in plant cells via enzymatic hydrolysis of 4-O-oxalyl-L-threonate. Nature 433, 83–87 (2005).Szarka, A., Tomasskovics, B. & Bánhegyi, G. The ascorbate-glutathione-α-tocopherol triad in abiotic stress response. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 13, 4458–4483 (2012).Hurlock, A. K., Roston, R. L., Wang, K. & Benning, C. Lipid trafficking in plant cells. Traffic 15, 915–932 (2014).Blokhina, O., Virolainen, E. & Fagerstedt, K. V. Antioxidants, oxidative damage and oxygen deprivation stress: a review. Ann. Bot. 91, 179–194 (2003).Yeats, T. H. & Rose, J. K. The formation and function of plant cuticles. Plant Physiol. 163, 5–20 (2013).Lozano-Juste, J. & León, J. Enhanced abscisic acid-mediated responses in nia1nia2noa1-2 triple mutant impaired in NIA/NR- and AtNOA1-dependent nitric oxide biosynthesis in Arabidopsis. Plant Physiol. 152, 891–903 (2010).Hörtensteiner, S. Update on the biochemistry of chlorophyll breakdown. Plant Mol Biol. 82, 505–17 (2013).Pruzinská, A. et al. Chlorophyll breakdown in senescent Arabidopsis leaves: characterization of chlorophyll catabolites and of chlorophyll catabolic enzymes involved in the degreening reaction. Plant Physiol. 139, 52–63 (2005).Hirashima, M., Tanaka, R. & Tanaka, A. Light-independent cell death induced by accumulation of pheophorbide a in Arabidopsis thaliana. Plant Cell Physiol. 50, 719–29 (2009).Zottini, M., Costa, A., De Michele, R., Ruzzene, M., Carimi, F. & Lo Schiavo, F. Salicylic acid activates nitric oxide synthesis in Arabidopsis. J Exp Bot. 58, 1397–1405 (2007).Mainz, E. R. et al. Monitoring intracellular nitric oxide production using microchip electrophoresis and laser-induced fluorescence detection. Analytical Methods 4, 414–420 (2012).Vandelle, E. & Delledonne, M. Peroxynitrite formation and function in plants. Plant Sci. 181, 534–539 (2011).Minocha, R., Majumdar, R. & Minocha, S. C. Polyamines and abiotic stress in plants: a complex relationship. Front. Plant Sci. 5, 175 (2014).Parsons H. T., Yasmin, T. & Fry, S. C. Alternative pathways of dehydroascorbic acid degradation in vitro and in plant cell cultures: novel insights into vitamin C catabolism. Biochem. J. 440, 375–383 (2011).Hou, Q., Ufer, G. & Bartels, D. Lipid signalling in plant responses to abiotic stress. Plant Cell Environ. 39, 1029–4108 (2016).Zhou, X. R., Callahan, D. L., Shrestha, P., Liu, Q., Petrie, J. R. & Singh, S. P. Lipidomic analysis of Arabidopsis seed genetically engineered to contain DHA. Front. Plant Sci. 5, 41 (2014).Pohl, C. H. & Kock, J. L. Oxidized fatty acids as inter-kingdom signaling molecules. Molecules 19, 1273–1285 (2014).Araújo, W. L., Tohge, T., Ishizaki, K., Leaver, C. J. & Fernie, A. R. Protein degradation-an alternative respiratory substrate for stressed plants. Trends Plant Sci. 16, 489–498 (2011).Sakamoto, W. & Takami, T. Nucleases in higher plants and their possible involvement in DNA degradation during leaf senescence. J. Exp. Bot. 65, 3835–3843 (2014).Del Duca, S., Serafini-Fracassini, D. & Cai, G. Senescence and programmed cell death in plants: polyamine action mediated by transglutaminase. Front. Plant Sci. 5, 120 (2014).Franco, M. C. & Estévez, A. G. Tyrosine nitration as mediator of cell death. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 71, 3939–3950 (2014).Palumbo, A., Fiore, G., Di Cristo, C., Di Cosmo, A. & d’Ischia, M. NMDA receptor stimulation induces temporary alpha-tubulin degradation signalled by nitric oxide-mediated tyrosine nitration in the nervous system of Sepia officinalis. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 293, 1536–1543 (2002).Wang, Y. Y., Lin, S. Y., Chuang, Y. H., Mao, C. H., Tung, K. C. & Sheu, W. H. Protein nitration is associated with increased proteolysis in skeletal muscle of bile duct ligation-induced cirrhotic rats. Metabolism 59, 468–472 (2010).Castillo, M. C., Lozano-Juste, J., González-Guzmán, M., Rodriguez, L., Rodriguez, P. L. & León, J. Inactivation of PYR/PYL/RCAR ABA receptors by tyrosine nitration may enable rapid inhibition of ABA signaling by nitric oxide in plants. Sci. Signal. 8(392), ra89 (2015).Blaise, G. A., Gauvin, D., Gangal, M. & Authier, S. Nitric oxide, cell signaling and cell death. Toxicology 208, 177–192 (2005).Brüne, B. Nitric oxide: NO apoptosis or turning it ON? Cell Death Differ. 10, 864–869 (2003).Wang, Y., Chen, C., Loake, G. J. & Chu, C. Nitric oxide: promoter or suppressor of programmed cell death? Prot. Cell 1, 133–142 (2010).Serrano, I., Romero-Puertas, M. C., Sandalio, L. M. & Olmedilla, A. The role of reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide in programmed cell death associated with self-incompatibility. J. Exp. Bot. 66, 2869–2876 (2015).Huang, S., Hill, R. D. & Stasolla, C. Plant hemoglobin participation in cell fate determination. Plant Signal. Behavior 9, e29485 (2014).Maes, M. B., Scharpé, S. & De Meester, I. Dipeptidyl peptidase II (DPPII), a review. Clin. Chim. Acta 380, 31–49 (2007).Gibbs, D. J. et al. Nitric oxide sensing in plants is mediated by proteolytic control of group VII ERF transcription factors. Mol. Cell 53, 369–379 (2014).Kitamura, K. Inhibition of the Arg/N-end rule pathway-mediated proteolysis by dipeptide-mimetic molecules. Amino Acids 48, 235–243 (2016).Duek, P. D., Elmer, M. V., van Oosten, V. R. & Fankhauser C. The degradation of HFR1, a putative bHLH class transcription factor involved in light signaling, is regulated by phosphorylation and requires COP1. Curr Biol. 14, 2296–2301 (2004)

Transcriptional analyses of natural leaf senescence in maize.

Leaf senescence is an important biological process that contributes to grain yield in crops. To study the molecular mechanisms underlying natural leaf senescence, we harvested three different developmental ear leaves of maize, mature leaves (ML), early senescent leaves (ESL), and later senescent leaves (LSL), and analyzed transcriptional changes using RNA-sequencing. Three sets of data, ESL vs. ML, LSL vs. ML, and LSL vs. ESL, were compared, respectively. In total, 4,552 genes were identified as differentially expressed. Functional classification placed these genes into 18 categories including protein metabolism, transporters, and signal transduction. At the early stage of leaf senescence, genes involved in aromatic amino acids (AAAs) biosynthetic process and transport, cellular polysaccharide biosynthetic process, and the cell wall macromolecule catabolic process, were up-regulated. Whereas, genes involved in amino acid metabolism, transport, apoptosis, and response to stimulus were up-regulated at the late stage of leaf senescence. Further analyses reveals that the transport-related genes at the early stage of leaf senescence potentially take part in enzyme and amino acid transport and the genes upregulated at the late stage are involved in sugar transport, indicating nutrient recycling mainly takes place at the late stage of leaf senescence. Comparison between the data of natural leaf senescence in this study and previously reported data for Arabidopsis implies that the mechanisms of leaf senescence in maize are basically similar to those in Arabidopsis. A comparison of natural and induced leaf senescence in maize was performed. Athough many basic biological processes involved in senescence occur in both types of leaf senescence, 78.07% of differentially expressed genes in natural leaf senescence were not identifiable in induced leaf senescence, suggesting that differences in gene regulatory network may exist between these two leaf senescence programs. Thus, this study provides important information for understanding the mechanism of leaf senescence in maize