Lepidoptera of North America 2. Distribution of the butterflies (Papilionoidea and Hesperioidea) of the eastern United States

Chiefly maps

Fixation of Type Locality for \u3ci\u3eLycaena acmon\u3c/i\u3e Westwood and Characterization of the Species and its Distribution

Lycaena acmon Westwood, 1852 is based on a painting and plate legend in Westwood and Hewitson’s Genera of Diurnal Lepidoptera. The specimen illustrated was located in the British Museum Natural History and is the holotype by monotypy. The accompanying plate legend gives “California” as the type locality. Because the butterfly is a member of a complex of species, now considered in the genus Plebejus (Opler and Warren, 2003), that requires much systematic study, and some confusion exists on the identity of L. acmon, it is necessary to fix a more specific type locality, to characterize the species, and to present its synonymy. In addition, a number of taxa described or cited as P. acmon are listed, but which likely represent other species

Lepidoptera of North America 1. Distribution of silkmoths (Saturniidae) and hawkmoths (Sphingidae) of eastern North America

Includes bibliographical references (pages 5-9).Chiefly maps

Distribution of Saturniidae of Western North America

This is the first number of a series of atlases detailing the distributional occurrence of the moths of North America. The atlas of Saturniidae by Richard Peigler and me covers the documented distribution of a well-known group

Survey of selected insect taxa of Fort Sill, Comanche County, Oklahoma. Pt. 1, Selected Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, and Orthoptera

Includes bibliographical references (pages 73-77)

Scientific names list for butterfly species of North America, north of Mexico

Includes bibliographical references (pages 50-80).November 10, 2004

Genomics-Guided Refinement of Butterfly Taxonomy

Continuing with comparative genomic exploration of worldwide butterfly fauna, we use all proteincoding genes as they are retrieved from the whole genome shotgun sequences for phylogeny construction. Analysis of these genome-scale phylogenies projected onto the taxonomic classification and the knowledge about butterfly phenotypes suggests further refinements of butterfly taxonomy that are presented here. As a general rule, we assign most prominent clades of similar genetic differentiation to the same taxonomic rank, and use criteria based on relative population diversification and the extent of gene exchange for species delimitation. As a result, 7 tribes, 4 subtribes, 14 genera, and 9 subgenera are proposed as new, that is, in subfamily Pierinae Swainson, 1820: Calopierini Grishin, trib. n. (type genus Calopieris Aurivillius, 1898); in subfamily Riodininae Grote, 1895: Callistiumini Grishin, trib. n. (type genus Callistium Stichel, 1911); in subfamily Nymphalinae Rafinesque, 1815: Pycinini Grishin, trib. n. (type genus Pycina Doubleday 1849), Rhinopalpini Grishin, trib. n. (type genus Rhinopalpa C. & R. Felder 1860), Kallimoidini Grishin, trib. n. (type genus Kallimoides Shirôzu & Nakanishi 1984), Vanessulini Grishin, trib. n. (type genus Vanessula Dewitz 1887), and Doleschalliaini Grishin, trib. n. (type genus Doleschallia C. & R. Felder 1860); in tribe Mesosemiini Bates, 1859: Eunogyrina Grishin, subtrib. n. (type genus Eunogyra Westwood, 1851); in tribe Satyrini Boisduval, 1833: Callerebiina Grishin, subtrib. n. (type genus Callerebia Butler, 1867), Gyrocheilina Grishin, subtrib. n. (type genus Gyrocheilus Butler, 1867), and Calistina Grishin, subtrib. n. (type genus Calisto Hübner, [1823]); in subfamily Euselasiinae Kirby, 1871: Pelolasia Grishin, gen. n. (type species Eurygona pelor Hewitson, [1853]), Myselasia Grishin, gen. n. (type species Eurygona mys Herrich-Schäffer, [1853]), Eurylasia Grishin, gen. n. (type species Eurygona euryone Hewitson, 1856), Maculasia Grishin, gen. n. (type species Euselasia albomaculiga Callaghan, 1999), and Eugelasia Grishin, gen. n. (type species Eurygona eugeon Hewitson, 1856); in subtribe Mesosemiina Bates, 1859: Ectosemia Grishin, gen. n. (type species Papilio eumene Cramer, 1776) and Endosemia Grishin, gen. n. (type species Papilio ulrica Cramer, 1777); in tribe Symmachiini Reuter, 1896: Tigria Grishin, gen. n. (type species Mesene xypete Hewitson, 1870) and Asymma Grishin, gen. n. (type species Symmachia virgatula Stichel, 1910); in tribe Riodinini Grote, 1895: Putridivora Grishin, gen. n. (type species Charis argyrea Bates, 1868), Chadia Grishin, gen. n. (type species Charis cadytis Hewitson, 1866), Inkana Grishin, gen. n. (type species Charis incoides Schaus, 1902), and Oco Grishin, gen. n. (type species Symmachia ocellata Hewitson, 1867); in subtribe Zabuellina Seraphim, Freitas & Kaminski, 2018: Teenie Grishin, gen. n. (type species Calydna tinea Bates, 1868); Boreographium Grishin, subgen. n. (type species Papilio marcellus Cramer, 1777, parent genus Eurytides Hübner, [1821]), Esperourus Grishin, subgen. n. (type species Papilio esperanza Beutelspacher, 1975, parent genus Pterourus Scopoli, 1777), Hyppasonia Grishin, subgen. n. (type species Papilio hyppason Cramer, 1775, parent genus Heraclides Hübner, [1819]), Sisymbria Grishin, subgen. n. (type species Pieris sisymbrii Boisduval, 1852, parent genus Pontia [Fabricius], 1807), Greenie Grishin, subgen. n. (type species Thecla sheridonii [sic] Edwards, 1877, parent genus Callophrys Billberg, 1820), Magda Grishin, subgen. n. (type species Erebia magdalena Strecker, 1880, parent genus Erebia Dalman, 1816), and in genus Eresia Boisduval, 1836: Notilia Grishin, subgen. n. (type species Eresia orthia Hewitson, 1864), Levinata Grishin, subgen. n. (type species Eresia levina Hewitson, 1872), and Ithra Grishin, subgen. n. (type species Phyciodes ithra Kirby, 1900). Furthermore, we resurrect 6 genera, change the rank of 36 currently used genera to subgenus, synonymize 3 subtribes, 42 genera or subgenera, assign 3 genera to tribes and subtribes, and transfer 34 additional species to genera different from those these taxa are presently assigned to, present evidence to support 7 taxa as species instead of subspecies, and 1 taxon as a subspecies instead of species. Namely, the following taxa are valid genera: Terias Swainson, 1821 (not in Eurema Hübner, [1819]), Erythia Hübner, [1819] and Marmessus Hübner, [1819] (not in Euselasia Hübner, [1819]), Eucorna Strand, 1932 (not in Voltinia Stichel, 1910), Cremna Doubleday, 1847 (not in Napaea Hübner, [1819]), and Hallonympha Penz & DeVries, 2006 (not in Zabuella Stichel, 1911). The following taxa are best treated as subgenera: Zegris Boisduval, 1836 of Anthocharis Boisduval, Rambur, [Duménil] & Graslin, [1833]; Baltia Moore, 1878 and Pontieuchloia Verity, 1929 of Pontia [Fabricius], 1807; Phrissura Butler, 1870 of Appias Hübner, [1819]; Saletara Distant, 1885 of Catophaga Hübner, 1819; Leodonta Butler, 1870 of Pereute Herrich-Schäffer, 1867; Takashia M. Okano & T. Okano, 1985 of Polycaena Staudinger, 1886; Corrachia Schaus, 1913 of Styx Staudinger, 1876; Ionotus Hall, 2005 and Voltinia Stichel, 1910 of Cremna Doubleday, 1847; Hermathena Hewitson, 1874 of Ithomiola C. & R. Felder, 1865; Lucillella Strand, 1932 of Esthemopsis C. & R. Felder, 1865; Mesenopsis Godman & Salvin, 1886 and Xenandra C. & R. Felder, 1865 of Symmachia Hübner, [1819]; Pirascca J. Hall & Willmott, 1996 of Pterographium Stichel, 1910; Imelda Hewitson, 1870 of Echenais Hübner, [1819]; Calicosama J. Hall & Harvey, 2001 of Behemothia Hall, 2000; Polygrapha Staudinger, 1887 and Fountainea Rydon, 1971 of Anaea Hübner, [1819]; Siderone Hübner, [1823] and Phantos Dias, 2018 of Zaretis Hübner, [1819]; Harsiesis Fruhstorfer, 1911 of Platypthima Rothschild & Jordan, 1905; Vila Kirby, 1871 of Biblis Fabricius, 1807; Diaethria Billberg, 1820 and Perisama Doubleday, 1849 of Callicore Hübner, [1819]; Antigonis C. Felder, 1861 of Haematera Doubleday, 1849; Asterope Hübner, [1819], Nica Hübner, [1826], Peria Kirby, 1871, and Callicorina Smart, 1976 of Temenis Hübner, [1819]; Anthanassa Scudder, 1875, Castilia Higgins, 1981, Telenassa Higgins, 1981, Dagon Higgins, 1981, and Janatella Higgins, 1981 of Eresia Boisduval, 1836; and Wallengrenia Berg, 1897 of Polites Scudder, 1872. The following taxa are junior subjective synonyms: Maniolina Grote, 1897 of Erebiina Tutt, 1896; Melanargiina Wheeler, 1903 of Satyrina Boisduval, 1833; Phyciodina Higgins, 1981 of Melitaeina Herrich-Schäffer, 1843; Cunizza Grote, 1900 of Hesperocharis C. Felder, 1862; Reliquia Ackery, 1975 of Pontia [Fabricius], 1807; Tatochila A. Butler, 1870, Piercolias Staudinger, 1894, Hypsochila Ureta, 1955, Theochila W. D. Field, 1958, Pierphulia W. D. Field, 1958, and Infraphulia W. D. Field, 1958 of Phulia Herrich-Schäffer, 1867; Mesapia Gray, 1856 of Aporia Hübner, [1819]; Catasticta Butler, 1870 of Archonias Hübner, 1827; Sandia Clench & P. Ehrlich, 1960 and Xamia Clench, 1961 of Incisalia Scudder, 1872; Hades Westwood, 1851 of Methone Doubleday, 1847; Semomesia Westwood, 1851, Mesophthalma Westwood, 1851, Perophthalma Westwood, 1851 and Leucochimona Stichel, 1909 of Mesosemia Hübner, [1819], Xynias Hewitson, 1874 of Mesenopsis Godman & Salvin, 1886; Stichelia J. Zikán, 1949 of Symmachia Hübner, [1819]; Chimastrum Godman & Salvin, 1886 of Mesene Doubleday, 1847; Alethea Nielsen & Salazar, [2018] of Pirascca J. Hall & Willmott, 1996; Panaropsis J. Hall, 2002 of Pterographium Stichel, 1910; Comphotis Stichel, 1910 of Phaenochitonia Stichel, 1910; Colaciticus Stichel, 1910 of Baeotis Hübner, [1819]; Nahida Kirby, 1871 of Ithomeis Bates, 1862; Machaya Hall & Willmott, 1995 of Pachythone Bates, 1868; Percnodaimon Butler, 1876 and Erebiola Fereday, 1879 of Argyrophenga Doubleday, 1845; Hestinalis Bryk, 1938 of Mimathyma Moore, 1896; Catacore Dillon, 1948 of Diaethria Billberg, 1820; Mesotaenia Kirby, 1871 and Orophila Staudinger, 1886 of Perisama Doubleday, 1849; Paulogramma Dillon, 1948 of Catagramma Boisduval, 1836; Panacea Godman & Salvin, 1883 of Batesia C. Felder & R. Felder, 1862; Napeocles Bates, 1864 of Siproeta Hübner, [1823]; Texola Higgins, 1959 and Dymasia Higgins, 1960 of Microtia H. Bates, 1864; Tisona Higgins, 1981 of Ortilia Higgins, 1981; Abananote Potts, 1943 and Altinote Potts, 1943 of Actinote Hübner, [1819]; Episcada Godman & Salvin, 1879 of Ceratinia Hübner, 1816; and Appia Evans, 1955 of Pompeius Evans, 1955. The following genera are placed in taxonomic hierarchy: Prestonia Schaus, 1920 belongs to Euremini Grote, 1898; Petrocerus Callaghan, 1979 belongs to Theopina Clench, 1955; and Paralasa Moore, 1893 belongs to Ypthimina Reuter, 1896. The following taxa are distinct species rather than subspecies (of species shown in parenthesis): Pyrisitia westwoodii (Boisduval, 1836) (not Pyrisitia dina (Poey, 1832)), Biblis aganisa Boisduval, 1836 (not Biblis hyperia (Cramer, 1779)), Phystis variegata (Röber, 1913) and Phystis pratti (A. Hall, 1935) (not Phystis simois (Hewitson, 1864)), Phocides batabano (Lucas, 1857) and Phocides bicolora (Boddaert, 1783) (not Phocides pigmalion (Cramer, 1779)), Lobotractus mysie (Dyar, 1904) (not Lobotractus valeriana (Plötz, 1881)). Nahida coenoides (Hewitson, 1870) is conspecific with Ithomeis aurantiaca H. Bates, 1862. Additional new and revised combinations are: Teriocolias deva (E. Doubleday, 1847), Teriocolias reticulata (A. Butler, 1871), Hesperocharis leucothea (Molina, 1782), Methone euploea (Hewitson, [1855]), Methone eucerus (Hewitson, 1872), Methone hypophaea (Godman & Salvin, 1878), Methone eubule (R. Felder, 1869), Methone onorata (Hewitson, 1869), Methone authe (Godman, 1903), Methone dolichos (Staudinger, [1887]), Methone baucis (Stichel, 1919), Methone eucrates (Hewitson, 1872), Napaea danforthi A. Warren & Opler, 1999, Napaea dramba (J. Hall, Robbins & Harvey, 2004), Napaea sanarita (Schaus, 1902), Napaea agroeca Stichel, 1910, Napaea tumbesia J. Hall & Lamas, 2001, Napaea umbra (Boisduval, 1870), Napaea phryxe (C. & R. Felder, 1865), Napaea cebrenia (Hewitson, [1873]), Napaea loxicha (R.G. Maza & J. Maza, 2016), Napaea maya (J. Maza & Lamas, 2016), Napaea necaxa (R.G. Maza & J. Maza, 2018), Napaea totonaca (R.G. Maza & J. Maza, 2016), Mesene aeolia (Bates, 1868), Pterographium hypochloris (Bates, 1868), Phaenochitonia florus (Fabricius, 1793), Ourocnemis carausius (Westwood, 1851), Ourocnemis principalis (Hopffer, 1874), Ourocnemis renaldus (Stoll, 1790), and Ourocnemis aerosus (Stichel, 1924), Hallonympha maculosa (Bates, 1868), Exoplisia aphanis (Stichel, 1910), Phystis fontus (A. Hall, 1928), Phocides batabano okeechobee (Worthington, 1881), and Phocides batabano batabanoides (W. Holland, 1902). Finally, we confirm the combination Zabuella castanea (Prittwitz, 1865) and find Pyrgus centaureae dzekh Gorbunov, 2007 as a new subspecies for North America

Changes to North American Butterfly Names

We obtained and analyzed whole genome shotgun sequences of all 845 species of butterflies recorded from Canada and the United States. Genome-scale phylogenetic trees constructed from the data reveal several nonmonophyletic genera and suggest improved classification of species included in these genera. Here, these changes are formalized and 2 subgenera are described: Amblyteria Grishin, subgen. n. (type species Goniloba exoteria Herrich-Schäffer, 1869, parent genus Amblyscirtes Scudder, 1872), and Coa Grishin, subgen. n. (type species Hesperia baracoa Lucas, 1857, parent genus Polites Scudder, 1872). Furthermore, we resurrect 3 genera and 2 subgenera from synonymy, change the rank of 6 currently used genera to subgenus, synonymize 2 genera, transfer 3 (2 resurrected) subgenera and 11 additional species to different genera than those these taxa were assigned to, and raise one name from synonym to species rank. Namely, Hedone Scudder, 1872 and Limochores Scudder, 1872 are valid genera and not synonyms of Polites Scudder, 1872; Pendantus K. Johnson & Kroenlein, 1993 is a valid genus and not a synonym of Electrostrymon Clench, 1961; and Sphaenogona Butler, 1870 and Lucidia Lacordaire, 1833 are valid subgenera of Abaeis Hübner, [1819] (new placement) and not synonyms of Eurema Hübner, [1819]. The following taxa are best treated as subgenera: Mimoides Brown, 1991 of Eurytides Hübner, [1821] (sensu lato); Philotiella Mattoni, [1978] of Euphilotes Mattoni, [1978]; Neominois Scudder, 1875 of Oeneis Hübner, [1819]; Agraulis Boisduval & Le Conte, [1835] of Dione Hübner, [1819]; Copaeodes Speyer, 1877 of Oarisma Scudder, 1872; and Problema Skinner & R. Williams, 1924 of Atrytone Scudder, 1872. Phaeostrymon Clench, 1961 and Saliana Evans, 1955 are junior subjective synonyms of Satyrium Scudder, 1876 and Calpodes Hübner, [1819], respectively. The entire subgenus Erynnides Burns, 1964 is transferred from Erynnis Schrank, 1801 to Gesta Evans, 1953. New genus-species combinations resulting from transfer of species between genera are: Nastra perigenes (Godman, 1900) (not Vidius Evans, 1955); Troyus fantasos (Cramer, 1780), Troyus onaca (Evans, 1955), Troyus aurelius (Plötz, 1882), Troyus marcus (Fabricius, 1787), Troyus diversa (Herrich-Schäffer, 1869), and Troyus drova (Evans, 1955) (not Vettius Godman, 1901); Oligoria percosius (Godman, 1900), Oligoria rindgei (H. Freeman, 1969), Oligoria lucifer (Hübner, [1831]), and Oligoria mustea (H. Freeman, 1979) (not Decinea Evans, 1955). Urbanus alva Evans, 1952 is a valid species and not a synonym of Urbanus belli (Hayward, 1935), new status

Genomic Evidence Suggests Further Changes of Butterfly Names

Further genomic sequencing of butterflies by our research group expanding the coverage of species and specimens from different localities, coupled with genome-scale phylogenetic analysis and complemented by phenotypic considerations, suggests a number of changes to the names of butterflies, mostly those recorded from the United States and Canada. Here, we present evidence to support these changes. The changes are intended to make butterfly classification more internally consistent at the genus, subgenus and species levels. That is, considering all available evidence, we attempt to assign similar taxonomic ranks to the clades of comparable genetic differentiation, which on average is correlated with the age of phylogenetic groups estimated from trees. For species, we use criteria devised by genomic analysis of the genetic differentiation across suture zones and comparison of sympatric populations of closely related species. As a result, we resurrect 4 genera and 1 subgenus from subgeneric status or synonymy, change the rank of 8 currently used genera to subgenus, synonymize 7 genus-group names, summarize evidence to support 19 taxa as species instead of subspecies and 1 taxon as subspecies instead of species, along with a number of additional changes. One new genus and one new subspecies are described. Namely, the following taxa are treated as genera Tharsalea Scudder, 1876, Helleia Verity, 1943, Apangea Zhdanko, 1995, and Boldenaria Zhdanko, 1995. Tetracharis Grote, 1898 is a valid subgenus (not a synonym of Anthocharis Boisduval, Rambur, [Duménil] & Graslin, [1833]) that consists of Anthocharis cethura C. Felder & R. Felder, 1865 (Müller, 1764), Anthocharis midea (Hübner, [1809]), and Anthocharis limonea (A. Butler, 1871). The following are subgenera: Speyeria Scudder, 1872 of Argynnis Fabricius, 1807; Aglais Dalman, 1816 and Polygonia Hübner, [1819] of Nymphalis Kluk, 1780; Palaeonympha Butler, 1871 of Megisto Hübner, [1819]; Hyponephele Muschamp, 1915 of Cercyonis Scudder, 1875; Pyronia Hübner, [1819] and Aphantopus Wallengren, 1853 of Maniola Schrank, 1801 and Pseudonymphidia Callaghan, 1985 of Pachythone. Lafron Grishin, gen. n. (type species Papilio orus Stoll, [1780], parent subfamily Lycaeninae [Leach], [1815]) is described. Dipsas japonica Murray, 1875 is fixed as the type species of Neozephyrus Sibatani & Ito, 1942. The following taxa are junior subjective synonyms: Falcapica Klots, 1930 of Tetracharis Grote, 1898; Habrodais Scudder, 1876, Favonius Sibatani & Ito, 1942, Neozephyrus Sibatani & Ito, 1942, Quercusia Verity, 1943, Chrysozephyrus Shirôzu & Yamamoto, 1956, and Sibataniozephyrus Inomata, 1986 of Hypaurotis Scudder, 1876; Plesioarida Trujano & García, 2018 of Roeberella Strand, 1932; Papilio temenes Godart, 1819 (lectotype designated herein) of Heraclides aristodemus (Esper, 1794), Speyeria hydaspe conquista dos Passos & Grey, 1945 of Argynnis hesperis tetonia (dos Passos & Grey, 1945), and Erycides imbreus Plötz, 1879 of Phocides polybius polybius (Fabricius, 1793). The following are revised genus-species combinations: Pachythone lencates (Hewitson, 1875) Pachythone flocculus (Brévignon & Gallard, 1993), Pachythone floccus (Brévignon, 2013), Pachythone heberti (P. Jauffret & J. Jauffret, 2007), Pachythone marajoara (P. Jauffret & J. Jauffret, 2007) and Cissia cleophes (Godman & Salvin, 1889). The following species are transferred between subgenera: Anthocharis lanceolata Lucas, 1852 belongs to Anthocharis Boisduval, Rambur, [Duménil] & Graslin, [1833] instead of Paramidea Kuznetsov, 1929 and Danaus eresimus (Cramer, 1777) belongs to Danaus Kluk, 1780, and not to Anosia Hübner, 1816. The following taxa are distinct species rather than subspecies (of species shown in parenthesis): Heraclides ponceana (Schaus, 1911) (not Heraclides aristodemus (Esper, 1794)), Colias elis Strecker, 1885 (not Colias meadii W. H. Edwards, 1871), Argynnis irene Boisduval, 1869 and Argynnis nausicaa W. H. Edwards, 1874 (not Argynnis hesperis W. H. Edwards, 1864), Coenonympha california Westwood, [1851] (not Coenonympha tullia (Müller, 1764)), Dione incarnata N. Riley, 1926 (not Dione vanillae (Linnaeus, 1758)), Chlosyne coronado (M. Smith & Brock, 1988) (not Chlosyne fulvia (W. H. Edwards, 1879)), Chlosyne chinatiensis (Tinkham, 1944) (not Chlosyne theona (Ménétriés, 1855)), Phocides lilea (Reakirt, [1867]) (not Phocides polybius (Fabricius, 1793)), Cecropterus nevada (Scudder, 1872) and Cecropterus dobra (Evans, 1952) (not Cecropterus mexicana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1869)), Telegonus anausis Godman & Salvin, 1896, (not Telegonus anaphus (Cramer, 1777)), Epargyreus huachuca Dixon, 1955 (not Epargyreus clarus (Cramer, 1775)), Nisoniades bromias (Godman & Salvin, 1894) (not Nisoniades rubescens (Möschler, 1877)), Pholisora crestar J. Scott & Davenport, 2017 (not Pholisora catullus (Fabricius, 1793)), Carterocephalus mandan (W. H. Edwards, 1863) and Carterocephalus skada (W. H. Edwards, 1870) (not Carterocephalus palaemon (Pallas, 1771)), Amblyscirtes arizonae H. Freeman, 1993 (not Amblyscirtes elissa Godman, 1900), and Megathymus violae D. Stallings & Turner, 1956 (not Megathymus ursus Poling, 1902). Resulting from these changes, the following are revised species-subspecies combinations: Heraclides ponceana bjorndalae (Clench, 1979), Heraclides ponceana majasi L. Miller, 1987, Argynnis irene dodgei Gunder, 1931, Argynnis irene cottlei J. A. Comstock, 1925, Argynnis irene hanseni (J. Emmel, T. Emmel & Mattoon, 1998), Argynnis nausicaa elko (Austin, 1984), Argynnis nausicaa greyi (Moeck, 1950), Argynnis nausicaa viola (dos Passos & Grey, 1945), Argynnis nausicaa tetonia (dos Passos & Grey, 1945), Argynnis nausicaa chitone W. H. Edwards, 1879, Argynnis nausicaa schellbachi (Garth, 1949), Argynnis nausicaa electa W. H. Edwards, 1878, Argynnis nausicaa dorothea (Moeck, 1947), and Argynnis nausicaa capitanensis (R. Holland, 1988), Argynnis zerene atossa W. H. Edwards, 1890, Dione incarnata nigrior (Michener, 1942), Chlosyne coronado pariaensis (M. Smith & Brock, 1988), Cecropterus nevada aemilea (Skinner, 1893), Cecropterus nevada blanca (J. Scott, 1981), Telegonus anausis annetta (Evans, 1952), Telegonus anausis anoma (Evans, 1952), Telegonus anausis aniza (Evans, 1952), Epargyreus huachuca profugus Austin, 1998, Carterocephalus mandan mesapano (Scudder, 1868) and Carterocephalus skada magnus Mattoon & Tilden, 1998. American Coenonympha subspecies placed under C. tullia other than Coenonympha tullia kodiak W. H. Edwards, 1869, Coenonympha tullia mixturata Alpheraky, 1897 and Coenonympha tullia yukonensis W. Holland, 1900 belong to C. california. Heraclides ponceana latefasciatus Grishin, ssp. n. is described from Cuba. Argynnis coronis carolae dos Passos & Grey, 1942 is considered a subspecies-level taxon. Unless stated otherwise, all subgenera, species, subspecies and synonyms of mentioned genera and species are transferred together with their parent taxa, and others remain as previously classified

Fetal Environment and Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia and related disorders are adult-onset illnesses with no definitively established risk factors. Several studies report that exposures to infection and nutritional deprivation during early development may elevate the risk of later developing schizophrenia, specifically during the prenatal period. Preliminary evidence implicates lead exposure as well, suggesting that chemical exposures during early development may constitute a new class of risk factors for schizophrenia that has not been adequately investigated. Exposure to lead is given as an example of a chemical agent for which some effects have been described throughout the life course on both general neurodevelopmental outcomes and now on a specific psychiatric diagnosis. Findings from prospectively collected birth cohorts are offered as examples of both innovations in methodology and opportunities for future generations of investigators