Measuring cognitive load and cognition: metrics for technology-enhanced learning

This critical and reflective literature review examines international research published over the last decade to summarise the different kinds of measures that have been used to explore cognitive load and critiques the strengths and limitations of those focussed on the development of direct empirical approaches. Over the last 40 years, cognitive load theory has become established as one of the most successful and influential theoretical explanations of cognitive processing during learning. Despite this success, attempts to obtain direct objective measures of the theory's central theoretical construct – cognitive load – have proved elusive. This obstacle represents the most significant outstanding challenge for successfully embedding the theoretical and experimental work on cognitive load in empirical data from authentic learning situations. Progress to date on the theoretical and practical approaches to cognitive load are discussed along with the influences of individual differences on cognitive load in order to assess the prospects for the development and application of direct empirical measures of cognitive load especially in technology-rich contexts

Variability of worked examples and transfer of geometrical problem-solving skills : a cognitive-load approach

Four computer-based training strategies for geometrical problem solving in the domain of computer numerically controlled machinery programming were studied with regard to their effects on training performance, transfer performance, and cognitive load. A low- and a high-variability conventional condition, in which conventional practice problems had to be solved (followed by worked examples), were compared with a low- and a high-variability worked condition, in which worked examples had to be studied. Results showed that students who studied worked examples gained most from high-variability examples, invested less time and mental effort in practice, and attained better and less effort-demanding transfer performance than students who first attempted to solve conventional problems and then studied work examples

The influence of school and teaching quality on children’s progress in primary school

This report investigates the way school and classroom processes affect the cognitive progress and social/behavioural development of children between the ages of 6 (Year 1) and 10 (Year 5) in primary schools in England. The research is part of the larger longitudinal study of Effective Pre-School and Primary Education (EPPE 3-11) funded by the Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF) that is following children’s cognitive and social/behavioural development from ages 3 to 11 years. The EPPE 3-11 study investigates both pre-school and primary school influences on children’s attainment, progress and social/behavioural development. This report describes the results of quantitative analyses based on a subsample of 1160 EPPE children across Year 1 to 5 of primary education. The research builds on the earlier analyses of children’s Reading and Mathematics attainments and social/behavioural outcomes in Year 5 for the full EPPE 3-11 sample (see Sammons, 2007a; 2007b), by investigating relationships between children’s outcomes and measures of classroom processes, collected through direct observation of Year 5 classes in 125 focal schools chosen from the larger EPPE 3-11 data set. The analyses also explore patterns of association between children’s outcomes and broader measures of overall school characteristics derived from teacher questionnaires and Ofsted inspection reports for this sub-sample of schools

Individual learner differences and distance language learning: an overview

No abstract available

Student profiling in a dispositional learning analytics application using formative assessment

How learning disposition data can help us translating learning feedback from a learning analytics application into actionable learning interventions, is the main focus of this empirical study. It extends previous work where the focus was on deriving timely prediction models in a data rich context, encompassing trace data from learning management systems, formative assessment data, e-tutorial trace data as well as learning dispositions. In this same educational context, the current study investigates how the application of cluster analysis based on e-tutorial trace data allows student profiling into different at-risk groups, and how these at-risk groups can be characterized with the help of learning disposition data. It is our conjecture that establishing a chain of antecedent-consequence relationships starting from learning disposition, through student activity in e-tutorials and formative assessment performance, to course performance, adds a crucial dimension to current learning analytics studies: that of profiling students with descriptors that easily lend themselves to the design of educational interventions

Applying science of learning in education: Infusing psychological science into the curriculum

The field of specialization known as the science of learning is not, in fact, one field. Science of learning is a term that serves as an umbrella for many lines of research, theory, and application. A term with an even wider reach is Learning Sciences (Sawyer, 2006). The present book represents a sliver, albeit a substantial one, of the scholarship on the science of learning and its application in educational settings (Science of Instruction, Mayer 2011). Although much, but not all, of what is presented in this book is focused on learning in college and university settings, teachers of all academic levels may find the recommendations made by chapter authors of service. The overarching theme of this book is on the interplay between the science of learning, the science of instruction, and the science of assessment (Mayer, 2011). The science of learning is a systematic and empirical approach to understanding how people learn. More formally, Mayer (2011) defined the science of learning as the “scientific study of how people learn” (p. 3). The science of instruction (Mayer 2011), informed in part by the science of learning, is also on display throughout the book. Mayer defined the science of instruction as the “scientific study of how to help people learn” (p. 3). Finally, the assessment of student learning (e.g., learning, remembering, transferring knowledge) during and after instruction helps us determine the effectiveness of our instructional methods. Mayer defined the science of assessment as the “scientific study of how to determine what people know” (p.3). Most of the research and applications presented in this book are completed within a science of learning framework. Researchers first conducted research to understand how people learn in certain controlled contexts (i.e., in the laboratory) and then they, or others, began to consider how these understandings could be applied in educational settings. Work on the cognitive load theory of learning, which is discussed in depth in several chapters of this book (e.g., Chew; Lee and Kalyuga; Mayer; Renkl), provides an excellent example that documents how science of learning has led to valuable work on the science of instruction. Most of the work described in this book is based on theory and research in cognitive psychology. We might have selected other topics (and, thus, other authors) that have their research base in behavior analysis, computational modeling and computer science, neuroscience, etc. We made the selections we did because the work of our authors ties together nicely and seemed to us to have direct applicability in academic settings

Communication, Affect, & Learning in the Classroom

The purpose of the handbook was to synthesize the first three decades of research in instructional communication into a single volume that could help both researchers and instructors understand the value of communication in the instructional process.Preface1.Teaching As a Communication Process The Instructional Communication Process The Teacher The Content The Instructional Strategy The Student The Feedback/Evaluation The Learning Environment/Instructional Context Kibler’s Model of Instruction The ADDIE Model of Instructional Design2.Communicating With Instructional Objectives Why Some Teachers Resent Objectives The Value of Objectives What Objectives Should Communicate3.Instructional Communication Strategies The Teacher As a Speaker The Teacher As a Moderator The Teacher As a Trainer The Teacher As a Manager The Teacher As a Coordinator & Innovator4.Communication, Affect, and Student Needs Measuring Student Affect Basic Academic Needs of Students Traditional Interpersonal Need Models Outcomes of Meeting Student Needs5.Learning Styles What is Learning Style? Dimensions of Learning Style and Their Assessment Matching, Bridging, and Style-Flexing6.Classroom Anxieties and Fears Communication Apprehension Receiver Apprehension Writing Apprehension Fear of Teacher Evaluation Apprehension Classroom Anxiety Probable Causes of Classroom Anxiety Communication Strategies for Reducing Classroom Anxiety7.Communication And Student Self-Concept Student Self-Concept: Some Definitions Characteristics of the Self Development of Student Self-Concept Dimensions of Student Self-Concept Self-Concept and Academic Achievement Effects of Self-Concept on Achievement Poker Chip Theory of Learning Communication Strategies for Nurturing and Building Realistic Student Self-Concept8.Instructional Assessment:Feedback,Grading, and Affect Defining the Assessment Process Evaluative Feedback Descriptive Feedback Assessment and Affect Competition and Cooperation in Learning Environments9.Traditional and Mastery Learning Systems Traditional Education Systems Mastery Learning Modified Mastery Learning10.Student Misbehavior and Classroom Management Why Students Misbehave Categories of Student Behaviors Students’ Effects on Affect in the Classroom Communication, Affect, and Classroom Management Communication Techniques for Increasing or Decreasing Student Behavior11.Teacher Misbehaviors and Communication Why Teachers Misbehave Common Teacher Misbehaviors Implications for the Educational Systems12.Teacher Self-Concept and Communication Dimensions of Teacher Self-Concept Development of Teacher Self-Concept Strategies for Increasing Teacher Self-Concept13.Increasing Classroom Affect Through Teacher Communication Style Communicator Style Concept Types of Communicator Styles Teacher Communication Style Teacher Communicator Behaviors That Build Affect14.Teacher Temperament in the Classroom Four Personality Types Popular Sanguine Perfect Melancholy Powerful Choleric Peaceful Phlegmatic Personality Blends15.Teacher Communication: Performance and Burnout Teaching: A Multifaceted Job Roles of an Instructional Manager Teacher Burnout Symptoms of Teacher Burnout Causes of Teacher Burnout Methods for Avoiding Burnout Mentoring to Prevent BurnoutAppendix A To Mrs. Russell: Without You This Never Would Have HappenedGlossaryInde

TOWARDS OPTIMAL SCAFFOLDING OF LOW ACHIEVERS’ LEARNING : combining intertwined, dynamic, and multi-domain perspectives

This dissertation aims to contribute to the optimal scaffolding of low achievers’ learning. Scaffolding research has traditionally concentrated on teachers’ short-term support and, thus, has not scrutinized the calibration of long-term support for students’ learning. The aim of this dissertation is to theoretically and empirically deepen our understanding of scaffolding and learning as intertwined, dynamic, and multi-domain processes. Methodologically, the aim is to develop tools to systematically analyze intertwined multi-domain scaffolding and learning dynamics. With these tools, the opportunities created and taken up during interactions by both low achievers and their teachers are scrutinized and integrated to unveil both low achievers’ readiness for challenges and teachers’ flexibility in calibrating scaffolding to students’ needs. On a practical level, by developing and identifying scaffolding practices, this dissertation aims to promote and explore teachers’ professional development in optimal scaffolding. To achieve these aims, this dissertation comprises four intervention studies. The mixed methods approach, including carefully designed tests, quasi-experimental and single-subject designs, and longitudinal in-depth case studies with systematic interaction video-observations, was used in the studies. In Study I, the aim was to determine the effectiveness of multi-domain scaffolding in supporting low achievers’ learning. We designed an intervention to develop the cognitive–metacognitive and motivational–emotional domains needed in mathematical word problem solving. To overcome challenges reported in earlier studies on scaffolding low achievers’ complex skills, our intervention combined teacher scaffolding with word problems embedded in a computer-supported adventure game. During the instructional discussions, the students were scaffolded to become active, strategic, and motivated problem solvers. Altogether, 429 general education fourth grade 10-year-old students participated. Intervention students (n = 8) and two pairwise-matched controls for each intervention student (n = 16) were selected from the lowachievers in word problem solving among the total sample. Intervention students participated in the intervention in pairs during 14 game lessons. Each lesson lasted approximately 45 minutes. At the group level, some positive and lasting effects for the intervention group’s word problem solving were indicated by the statistical test results and effect sizes from the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up test comparisons. After the intervention, the intervention group’s word problem solving skills no longer differed from those of the other students (n = 405), who served as a comparison group to establish the typical skill level of the age group. By contrast, the control groups’ skills still were below the typical level. When the individual learning dynamics behind the group level were scrutinized, large intra- and inter-individual variability were identified. Observations showed the power of the innovative learning environment in deepening students’ engagement in problem solving, but also the challenges in scaffolding low achievers’ complex skills. It was concluded that low achievers’ word problem solving skills progress when they are given intensive and systematic multi-domain teacher scaffolding in a carefully designed computer-supported learning environment. The interesting variability in the low achievers’ development and the vital role of the instructional discussion between the low achievers and the teacher highlighted the importance of in-depth analysis of multi-domain scaffolding interactions to deepen our understanding of the most optimal ways to scaffold low achievers and formed the basis of Studies II to IV. In Study II, the aim was to establish the potential of dynamic interaction analysis to study scaffolding. We introduced an educational application of the State Space Grid (SSG) method for analyzing teachers’ scaffolding in relation to students’ learning in real time. We also built a theoretically integrated optimal scaffolding model that uses concepts of interpersonal positioning, creation, and the take-up of opportunities to interpret interactions illustrated with SSGs. Based on the optimal scaffolding model, during scaffolding, students are positioned by moment-to-moment opportunities to participate in particular ways. Over time, these interpersonal positions establish diverse learning trajectories. To successfully support learning in the cognitive–metacognitive domain, scaffolding was supposed to include both dynamic matches between opportunities created by the teacher and taken up by the students and opportunities created by the teacher at a higher level than the students’ following participation. Methodological illustrations were produced by analysing from videotapes the strategic levels of opportunities created and taken up between a special education teacher and three fourth-grade low achievers during three lessons in a multi-domain small-group reading comprehension intervention. The results showed that teacher domination and interaction at low matched levels were very typical. Interactions at high levels were rare. Missed opportunities were observed when the teacher created high-level opportunities, but faced challenges in pulling low achievers to this level or failed to take up opportunities created by the low achievers. These missed opportunities showed that the teacher had difficulties calibrating her level of scaffolding to pull the lowachievers toward new levels of independent activity. With these methodological illustrations, we established the power of SSGs for representing and analyzing instructional match and mismatch in the cognitive–metacognitive domain. We also showed that studying scaffolding interactions has great potential for understanding teachers’ expertise and the dynamics behind resistance and resilience to learning. The methodological and theoretical progress made in Study II formed the basis for scrutinizing long-term scaffolding interactions with more cases in Study III. In Study III, the aim was to deepen understanding of the intertwined and dynamic nature of evolving scaffolding patterns in the cognitive–metacognitive domain. We further developed the optimal scaffolding model and applications of the SSG method for studying long-term scaffolding. To capture opportunities created and taken up during extended processes, all intervention lessons in two small groups were analyzed from videotapes (19 lessons/group, altogether 21,428 contributions). Both groups participated in the reading comprehension intervention developed in Study II, and interactions were analysed in the same way as in Study II. The results demonstrated that low-level matches were too typical and high-level matches too rare also during long-term scaffolding. Based on the optimal scaffolding model, we expected an increase in high-level matches and a decrease in low-level matches during the intervention. However, there were no linear changes in the matched interactions. The most promising but, unfortunately, frequently missed potential emerged when the teacher or the low achievers created opportunities by participating at a higher level than the other participant. We expected an increase in opportunities created by the teacher during the intervention. However, one of the two teachers did not increase and the other even decreased high-level opportunities. Interestingly, there was a linear increase in the high-level opportunities created by the low achievers in both groups. Unfortunately, the teachers did not flexibly take up the low achievers’ increasing readiness for high-level participation. Interesting group differences, fluctuations and non-linear developments were also found. This study deepened our understanding of the intertwined and dynamic nature of cognitive–metacognitive scaffolding and emphasized the need to continue developing collaborations between researchers and teachers to increase optimal scaffolding. Future research was challenged to understand the scaffolding in both the cognitive–metacognitive and the motivational–emotional domains to deepen the understanding of the systemic formation and maintenance of learning dynamics. In Study IV, we took the next step towards this grand goal by scrutinizing teachers’ emotional scaffolding. In Study IV, the aim was to gain insight into the nature and evolution of scaffolding in the motivational–emotional domain. We developed a systematical observation method to deepen the understanding of teachers’ emotional scaffolding and its variation during interaction processes. Methodological illustrations were produced by analysing from videotapes the teachers’ emotional support in a multi-domain dialogic story readingintervention. Videos from four preschool teachers were used to develop emotional support categories based on the Classroom Assessment Scoring System. Using the developed categories, we observed the positive, neutral, and negative emotional support of the other two preschool teachers, called here Petra and Leena, developmentally across the intervention during three sessions, variation of emotional support during single reading sessions and typical expressions of emotional support. The results showed that both preschool teachers provided mainly positive or neutral emotional support and seldom negative emotional support. Leena provided more positive emotional support and had more and longer consistent phases in her emotional support than Petra, whose emotional support was mainly neutral. However, Leena’s emotional support showed more inter-session variation than Petra’s. Consistent, harmful-to-learning phases (variations between negative and neutral emotional support) were observed in Petra’s mainly neutral emotional support in each session. Positive emotional support typically manifested as engaged reading, positive feedback, and encouraging facial expressions. Negative emotional support was typically shown by insensitivity and inflexibility to the children’s perspectives. With the help of the systematic observation method, it was possible to scrutinize the differences between the cases and both the stability and the variability of emotional support. The developed emotional support classification offers an in-depth method for recognizing the strengths and weaknesses of emotional support. Applying this classification to other kinds of interaction contexts, skill levels, and age groups would increase the understanding of emotional support in different contexts. In the future, emotional interaction could also be investigated from the perspective of the children to deepen the understanding of the complex systemic nature of emotional interactions by showing how children’s participation is intertwined with emotional support. Taken together, the four studies demonstrated that, to progress towards optimal scaffolding of low achievers’ learning, scaffolding needs to be scrutinized not only theoretically, but also empirically by combining intertwined, dynamic, and multi-domain perspectives. Variability of learning dynamics within and between students emphasizes that the careful, on-going calibration of the multi-domain support from the teacher and the learning environment are vital in optimally scaffolding each student’s progress towards learning goals during long-term interventions. New methods developed to systematically analyze and represent educationally meaningful multi-domain interaction patterns revealed several challenges in scaffolding low achievers. Low-level matches were too typical and high-level matches too rare. This highlights a need to strengthen teachers’ skills in scaffolding students’ take-up of high-level opportunities, which are pivotal for their learning of complex cognitive–metacognitive skills. Teachers should also sensitively listen to and flexibly follow up on opportunities created by their students by joining them in interactions directed towards the learning goals. The scaffolding interactions did not gradually move towards high levels even though it was expected to happen during the long-term intervention. The low achieversshowed increasing readiness for high-level participation; however, unfortunately, this was not flexibly taken up by the teachers. Based on the findings of this dissertation, we need to carefully consider how to optimally spend the precious time we can afford for scaffolding low achievers. The scaffolding interactions should focus on or at least gradually move towards focusing on high strategic and meta-strategic levels during long-term processes. To construct optimal cognitive–metacognitive scaffolding backed by consistent positive emotional support, we also need to pay greater attention to emotional support. Otherwise, the limited resources are non-optimally used for supporting low achievers’ learning of complex skills.KOHTI OPPIMISVAIKEUSOPPILAIDEN OPPIMISEN OPTIMAALISTA OHJAUSTA: Yhteenkietoutuneisuuden, dynaamisuuden ja moniulotteisuuden näkökulmia yhdistellen Tämä väitöskirja pyrkii edistämään oppimisvaikeusoppilaiden oppimisen optimaalista ohjaamista. Ohjausvuorovaikutustutkimus on perinteisesti keskittynyt opettajien lyhytkestoiseen tukeen eikä ole huolellisesti tarkastellut ohjauksen yhteensovittumista oppilaiden oppimisen kanssa pitkäkestoisissa prosesseissa. Tämän väitöskirjan tavoitteena on teoreettisesti ja empiirisesti syventää ymmärrystämme ohjauksesta ja oppimisesta yhteenkietoutuneina, kehityksellisesti vaihtelevina ja moniulotteisina prosesseina. Menetelmällisesti tavoitteena on kehittää välineitä systemaattisesti analysoida ohjauksen ja oppimisen yhteenkietoutunutta moniulotteista dynamiikkaa. Näiden välineiden avulla tarkastellaan ja integroidaan sekä oppimisvaikeusoppilaiden että opettajien luomia ja toteuttamia mahdollisuuksia. Näin voidaan selvittää sekä oppimisvaikeusoppilaiden valmiutta tarttua haasteisiin että opettajien joustavuutta sovittaa ohjaustaan oppilaiden oppimistarpeisiin. Käytännön tavoitteena on edistää opettajien ammatillista kehittymistä optimaalisen ohjausvuorovaikutuksen toteuttamisessa tunnistamalla ja kehittämällä oppimisen ohjaustapoja. Näiden tavoitteiden saavuttamiseksi väitöskirja koostuu neljästä opetuskokeilututkimuksesta, joissa käytettiin monimenetelmäistä lähestymistapaa. Menetelmällisiin ratkaisuihin sisältyi huolellisesti suunniteltuja testejä, näennäiskokeellinen asetelma, yksittäistapaus-tutkimusasetelma sekä syvälle luotaavia pitkittäistapaustutkimuksia, joissa vuorovaikutusta havainnointiin systemaattisesti videoilta. Tutkimuksessa I tavoitteena oli arvioida moniulotteisen ohjauksen tehokkuutta oppimisvaikeusoppilaiden oppimisen tukemisessa. Suunnittelimme opetuskokeilun kehittämään matemaattisessa ongelmanratkaisussa tarvittavia kognitiivis–metakognitiivisia ja motivationaalis–emotionaalisia ulottuvuuksia. Opetuskokeilussamme opettajan ohjaus yhdistettiin seikkailulliseen tietokonepeliin sijoitettuihin sanallisiin ongelmanratkaisutehtäviin, jotta voitiin yrittää vastata aikaisemmissa tutkimuksissaesille nostettuihin haasteisiin oppimisvaikeusoppilaiden oppimisen ohjaamisessa. Opetuskeskusteluissa oppilaita ohjattiin aktiivisiksi, strategisiksi ja motivoituneiksi ongelmanratkaisijoiksi. Tutkimukseen osallistui 429 yleisopetuksen 4. luokkalaista. Opetuskokeiluun osallistuvat oppilaat (n = 8) ja jokaiselle kaksi mahdollisimman soveltuvaa vertailuoppilasta (n = 16) valittiin sellaisista tutkimukseen osallistuneista oppilaista, joilla oli vaikeuksia sanallisten ongelmien ratkaisemisessa. Oppilaat osallistuivat opetuskokeiluun pareittain neljällätoista noin 45 minuutin pelikerralla. Myönteisiä ja pysyviä vaikutuksia opetuskokeiluun osallistuneiden ongelman-ratkaisutaitoihin havaittiin ryhmätasolla alku- ja loppumittauksen sekä viivästetyn mittauksen tilastollisten testausten ja vaikutusten kokojen perusteella. Opetuskokeilun jälkeen siihen osallistuneen ryhmän ongelmanratkaisutaidot eivät enää eronneet ikäryhmän tyypillisestä tasosta (n = 405), mutta kontrolliryhmien taidot olivat edelleen tyypillistä tasoa alhaisemmat. Tarkasteltaessa yksilöiden kehitystä ryhmätason taustalla havaittiin suurta yksilöiden välistä ja sisäistä vaihtelua. Opetuskokeilun aikaiset havainnot osoittivat innovatiivisen oppimisympäristön voiman oppilaiden syvälliseen ongelmanratkaisuun sitoutumisen lisäämisessä, mutta myös haasteita oppimisvaikeusoppilaiden monimutkaisten taitojen oppimisen ohjaamisessa. Tulosten perusteella oppimisvaikeusoppilaat kehittyvät sanallisessa ongelmanratkaisussa, kunhan tarjotaan intensiivistä, systemaattista ja moniulotteista opettajan ohjausta huolellisesti suunnitellussa tietokoneavusteisessa oppimisympäristössä. Oppilaiden kehityserot ja opetuskeskustelun keskeisyys korostivat ohjausvuorovaikutuksen huolellisen analysoinnin tärkeyttä pyrkiessämme syventämään ymmärrystä optimaalisimmista tavoista ohjata oppimisvaikeusoppilaiden oppimista sekä muodostivat pohjan tutkimuksille II-IV. Tutkimuksessa II tavoitteena oli osoittaa kehitykselliseen tarkasteluun soveltuvan vuorovaikutusanalyysin mahdollisuudet ohjausvuorovaikutuksen tutkimisessa. Esittelimme opetuksellisen sovelluksen vuorovaikutusruudukosta (State Space Grid), jolla voidaan tutkia opettajan ohjausta suhteessa oppilaiden osallistumisiin reaaliajassa. Kehitimme myös teoreettisesti integroidun lähestymistavan, joka käyttää käsitteitä yksilöiden välinen asemointi sekä mahdollisuuksien luominen ja toteutuminen tulkitessaan vuorovaikutusruudukkoa. Lähestymistapamme perusteella ohjausvuorovaikutuksessa hetki-hetkeltä luodut mahdollisuudet asemoivat oppilaita osallistumaan tietyin tavoin. Ajan kuluessa yksilöiden väliset asemat vakiintuvat muodostaen erilaisia oppimispolkuja. Onnistunut kognitiivis–metakognitiivinen ohjausvuorovaikutus edellyttää sekä jatkuvasti uudelleen määrittyvää yhteensopivuutta opettajan luomien mahdollisuuksien ja oppilaiden toteumien välillä että opettajan luomia mahdollisuuksia, jotka ovat korkeammalla tasolla kuin oppilaiden sen hetkinen osallistuminen. Menetelmällisiä esimerkkikuvauksia tuotettiin analysoimalla videoilta erityisopettajan ja kolmen 4. luokkalaisen oppimisvaikeusoppilaan luomien ja toteuttamien mahdollisuuksien strategisia tasoja. Analyysi kohdistui kolmeen pienryhmässä toteutettuun moniulotteisen luetun ymmärtämisen opetuskokeilunoppituntiin. Tulokset osoittivat, että opettajan dominointi sekä opettajan ja oppimisvaikeusoppilaiden vuorovaikutus samalla alhaisella tasolla olivat erittäin tyypillisiä. Vuorovaikutus korkeilla tasoilla sen sijaan oli harvinaista. Menetettyjä mahdollisuuksia havaittiin, kun opettaja loi mahdollisuuksia korkealla tasolla, mutta ei saanut oppimisvaikeusoppilaita tälle tasolle tai epäonnistui oppilaiden luomiin mahdollisuuksiin tarttumisessa. Menetetyt mahdollisuudet osoittivat, että opettajalla oli vaikeuksia johdonmukaisesti nostaa ohjaustasoaan kohti oppimisvaikeusoppilaiden uusia itsenäisen toiminnan tasoja. Menetelmällisten kuvausten avulla osoitimme vuorovaikutusruudukoiden voiman kognitiivis–metakognitiivisen ohjausvuorovaikutuksen osallistumisten yhteensopivuuden ja -sopimattomuuden kuvaamisessa ja analysoinnissa. Osoitimme myös, että ohjausvuorovaikutusten tutkiminen tarjoaa mahdollisuuden ymmärtää paremmin opettajan asiantuntijuutta sekä oppimisen onnistumisiin ja haasteisiin liittyvää ohjausvuorovaikutusta. Tutkimuksen menetelmälliset ja teoreettiset edistysaskeleet muodostivat perustan ohjausvuorovaikutusten entistä systemaattisemmalle tutkimiselle pidempien vuorovaikutusprosessien aikana useammissa esimerkkitapauksissa tutkimuksessa III. Tutkimuksessa III tavoitteena oli syventää ymmärrystä kognitiivis–metakognitiivisten ohjausvuorovaikutuksen yhteenkietoutuneesta ja kehityksellisesti vaihtelevasta luonteesta. Kehitimme edelleen teoreettista malliamme optimaalisesta